COMPUTER

SOFTWARE
Computer software is a group of programs (Code of instructions) that instructs the computer
system to work accordingly. There are mainly two types of software:

System Software: System software help establish communication between hardware

components so that the user can interact with the computer. These types of software are
necessary for the computer to operate correctly. They provide an interface to run additional
third party programs or utility tools. Operating systems, drivers, utility software, and firmware
are typical examples of the system software.

Application Software: Application software is designed to help users to perform specific tasks,
such as online surfing, setting the alarm, listening to music, playing videos, photo designing,
editing, etc. This type of software mostly runs in the frontend and allows end-users to work on.
Web browsers, Photoshop software, multimedia software and word processors are the
example of the application software.

Hardware
The physical parts attached to a computer that form a whole computer are called hardware or
hardware components. There can be different types of hardware, depending on the structure.
Some most common hardware are mouse, keyboard, monitor, printer, etc. These are the parts
that can be seen and touched by humans.

Basic Parts of Computer

The essential components of the computer can be defined as follows:
Input Unit: Input Units or devices are used to input the data or instructions into the computers.
Some most common input devices are mouse and keyword.

Output Unit: Output Units or devices are used to provide output to the user in the desired
format. The most popular examples of output devices are the monitor and the printer.

Control Unit: As its name a state, this unit is primarily used to control all the computer
functions and functionalities. All the components or devices attached to a computer interact
with each other through the control unit. In short, the control unit is referred to as 'CU'.

Arithmetic Logic Unit: The arithmetic logic unit helps perform all the computer system's
arithmetic and logical operations. In short, the arithmetic logic unit is referred to as 'ALU'.

Memory: Memory is used to store all the input data, instructions, and output data. Memory
usually has two types: Primary Memory and Secondary Memory. The memory found inside
the CPU is called the primary memory, whereas the memory that is not the integral part of
the CPU is called secondary memory.

Note: Control Unit, arithmetic logic unit, and the memory simultaneously form the central
processing unit (called CPU in short).

Functions of Computer
There are four core functions of the computer, as explained below:
Input: Whatever is given to a computer is called the input. The input data is given to the
computer using the input devices. The computer only takes data in a binary form (raw format).
The inputs devices help convert the entered data in the binary form to be understandable by
the computer. Data can be inputted in various forms, such as letters, numbers, images, etc.

Processing: Processing is the primary function of the computer. CPU helps to process the data
according to the instructions entered into the computer system. The processing of data is an
internal process of the computer system, and the data is executed in a queue. After the
processing has been completed, the data is further transferred as the output. The processor
(CPU) is the computer's brain, and it is a microchip. The processor's speed varies in different
computers because it depends on several factors, such as the type of CPU, memory, and
motherboard.

The following operations are performed on the data during the processing:

o Arithmetic Operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, differentials, square

root, etc.
o Logical Operations, such as equal to, not equal to, greater than, less than, opposite, etc.

Output: Anything that comes out from the computer is called the output. It is the human-
readable data and displayed on the computer screen (monitor). Output can be stored in the
storage devices if desired. The outputs devices help convert the processed data of the CPU into
the human-understandable form.

Storage: The device used to store the data of a computer system is called the storage. Storage
devices help to store digital data. They can store the data while the computer is operating and
after processing. There are volatile and non-volatile storage options. The volatile storage can
store the data as long as the power source is connected, whereas non-volatile can store the
data permanently even after the power source is disconnected.

Computer Memory
A computer is an electronic device that takes raw data as input and, processes it, then provides
the desired result. It has the potential to execute programmed computations quickly and with
great accuracy. Put in another way, the computer receives input such as data and stores it
together with instructions in memory (use them when required). The data is then processed
and converted into valuable information. After that, it provides the result according to the
inputs. Here, input means the unprocessed data that we want the machine to handle and then
give us a response, and output refers to the outcome of the machine's processing of the
unprocessed data, which may include data analysis, searching, distributing, storing, and more.
Consequently, a computer is also referred to as a data processing system.
Characteristics of Main Memory:
o It serves as the computer's main memory.
o As compared to secondary memory, it is faster computer memory.
o Typically, it is a volatile memory.
o Without primary memory, a computer system cannot run.
o These memories are semiconductors.

Types of computer memory

In general, memory can be classified into primary and secondary memory, however even when
just talking about primary memory, there are many different types of memory. There are some
examples of primary memory, such as follows:

o Cache memory: The cache, also known as a temporary storage area, is more readily
available to the processor as compared to the main memory source of the computer
system. It is mounted on a different chip that connects to the CPU via a bus or is
frequently built directly into the CPU chip; hence, it is also known as CPU memory.
o RAM: The term refers to the fact that the processor can directly access any storage
location. Random Access Memory, or RAM, is a piece of hardware that serves as the
internal memory of the CPU. It is often found on a on the motherboard of a computer.
When the computer is turned on, it enables the CPU to store programs, information, and
result of the program. Also, it is a computer's read-write memory, which means data can
be added to it as well as read from it.
o Dynamic RAM: A type of random-access memory that is used in computing systems
(primarily PCs) is called dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). The data or program
code required for a computer processor to operate is often stored in DRAM, which is a
kind of semiconductor memory. Each piece of data is stored in DRAM in its own passive
electrical component, which is located inside an integrated circuit board. Each electrical
component has two value states, known as 0 and 1, in one bit.
o Static RAM: As long as SRAM receives power, it keeps data bits in its memory. It does not
need to be refreshed on a regular basis, in contrast to DRAM, which stores bits in cells
made up of a capacitor and a transistor.
o Double Data Rate SDRAM: Theoretically, DDR SRAM can increase the memory clock
speed to at least 200 MHz. It is an SDRAM.
o Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic RAM: DDR4 RAM is the successor to its
preceding DDR2 and DDR3 iterations. It is a kind of DRAM that contains a high-
 bandwidth interface. Higher module density and lower voltage requirements are both
possible with DDR4 RAM. It enables dual in-line memory modules (DIMMS) up to 64 GB;
Also, higher data rate transfer speeds are paired with it.
o Rambus Dynamic RAM: A memory component called DRDRAM made a guarantee to
transport up to 1.6 billion bytes per second. The RAM controller subsystem consists of
RAM, a bus connecting RAM to the microprocessor, and computer-using devices that
make up the subsystem.
o Read-only memory: ROM is often only read from and not written to, which is a type of
computer storage. It is nonvolatile in nature, which means it stores data permanently.
The programming code is stored in the ROM that enables a computer system to boot up
or regenerate every time when it is turned on.
o Programmable ROM: PROM is ROM that a user can modify only once. Using a unique
device known as a PROM programmer enables a user to customize a microcode program.
o Erasable PROM: EPROM is a type of computer memory that can be erased and re-used.
It is programmable read-only memory PROM.
o Electrically erasable PROM: A user-modifiable ROM called an EEPROM can be repeatedly
wiped and reprogrammed with the help of an using electrical voltage that is higher than
usual. Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs can be changed without being taken out of the
computer. However, an EEPROM chip must be completely deleted and reprogrammed,
not just some parts of it.
o Virtual memory: A memory management method that enables the use of secondary
memory just like it was a component of main memory. In order to compensate for
physical memory shortages, virtual memory uses hardware and software to temporarily
shift data from RAM to disk storage.

RAM ROM

The full form of RAM is Random access The full form of ROM is read only memory.
memory.

In terms of speed, it is fastest memory. As compared to RAM, it is slower in speed.

It is volatile in nature, which means the It is non-volatile in nature, which means the data
data is lost when power is cut off. is retained even power is cut off.

Users can change and retrieve data that is Users can one read the data that is stored in
stored in RAM. ROM.
Register Memory
Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is not a part of the main
memory and is located in the CPU in the form of registers, which are the smallest data holding
elements. A register temporarily holds frequently used data, instructions, and memory address
that are to be used by CPU. They hold instructions that are currently processed by the CPU

o Data Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store operands (variables) to be

operated by the processor. It temporarily stores data, which is being transmitted to or
received from a peripheral device.
o Program Counter (PC): It holds the address of the memory location of the next
instruction, which is to be fetched after the current instruction is completed. So, it is
used to maintain the path of execution of the different programs and thus executes the
programs one by one, when the previous instruction gets completed.
o Instructor Register: It is a 16-bit register. It stores the instruction which is fetched from
the main memory. So, it is used to hold instruction codes, which are to be executed. The
Control Unit takes instruction from Instructor Register, then decodes and executes it.
o Accumulator Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store the results produced
by the system. For example, the results generated by CPU after the processing are stored
in the AC register.
o Address Register: It is a 12-bit register that stores the address of a memory location
where instructions or data is stored in the memory.
o I/O Address Register: Its job is to specify the address of a particular I/O device.
o I/O Buffer Register: Its job is to exchange the data between an I/O module and the CPU.

Parameters Cache Memory Register

Definition In a computer system, the cache is The registers, which make it up a minor
the smallest and fastest part of portion of the computer CPU, are quick
memory. storage components.

Data Stored A computer's cache stores the The registers serve to store the data
information and data that it that the computer's CPU is currently
recently used. processing.

Used by CPU In order to find previously stored Registers are used by the CPU to
data, the CPU makes use of cache process all the data and info that is
memory. new.
Location The cache of a computer can be The registers are a component of the
found either inside the CPU or on CPU of a computer device.
the motherboard of the system.

Data Processing It keeps information in a It keeps information in an unprocessed

processed state. state.

CPU Memory As compared to register memory, A CPU can perform numerous

Access Speed a system's CPU can access cache operations on the contents of a register
memory significantly more during a single clock cycle while
quickly. working with registers.

Examples Examples of cache memory An instance of the registers is the loop.

include database query cache,
dynamic page cache, and more.

Primary Memory
Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.

RAM (Volatile Memory)

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions permanently. When you
switch on the computer the data and instructions from the hard disk are stored in RAM.

CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the computer
the RAM loses all the data.

ROM (Non-volatile Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that are written on it
at the time of manufacture. So it is a permanent memory that contains all important data and
instructions needed to perform important tasks like the boot process

Secondary Memory
The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to the computer
are known as a secondary memory of the computer. It is also known as external memory or
auxiliary storage.
The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is non-volatile, so
permanently stores the data even when the computer is turned off or until this data is
overwritten or deleted. The CPU can't directly access the secondary memory. First, the
secondary memory data is transferred to primary memory then the CPU can access it.

 Hard Disk:
 Solid-state Drive:
 Pen drive:
 SD Card(Secure Digital Card)
 Compact Disk (CD)
 DVD(digital versatile disc or digital video disc)