EVOLUTION
The Origins of Evolutionary Thought
How did life forms occur?
Different theories which explain how different life forms exist: Creationism held the idea that
all forms of life were created in its present form and they remain unchanged since the
beginning.
- George Louis Leclerc, known as Count Buffon, was a French naturalist who first described
descent with modification such as environmental influences, migration geographical isolation
and the struggle for existence.
- In the late 18th century, Georges Cuvier, a vertebrate zoologist and paleontologist proposed
the theory of catastrophism. One day he had observed that a particular region showed a
succession of life forms in the soil layers. His observation seemed to contradict with his belief in
special creation of each species.
Cuvier explained that there might have been violent and sudden natural catastrophes such as
great f bods, tectonic earthquakes and rapid formation of mountain. chains, which resulted to
death and extinction of most plants and animals. After each catastrophe, God created new sets
of life forms.
- The Earth
Uniformitarianism (James Hutton and Charles Lyell)
In contrast to catastrophism, James Hutton and Charles Lyell believed that natural forces now
changing the shape of the earth's surface have been operating in the past much the same way.
This idea is known as uniformitarianism large geological changes occurred not in catastrophic
events but by gradual accumulation of small geological changes over long period of time.
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was the first biologist to believe that life forms evolve. He proposed
the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics, which is also called Lamarckian Evolution He
believed that every organism has the will to survive, and that will has allowed us to change to
more advantageous traits that suit us to the environment. The acquired traits are then
inherited by the next generation. One example that Lamarck gave is the elongation of giraffes is
necks over time because animals stretched their necks to reach for food and then passed on a
long neck to their offspring.
- In 1859, Charles Darwin published his book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection.
Contrary to creationism, Darwin believed that organisms evolve from Charles Darwin common
ancestor. Because we all share a common ancestor, we are all related to one another no matter
how different we are.
Who is Charles Darwin? How did he think species evolve?
Charles Darwin was only 22 years old when he got a chance to set sail aboard the Beagle, to
travel around the world and map the coasts of South America. He was an assistant for Captain
Robert Fritz Roy. His Beagle voyage allowed him to develop a theory that would contradict the
special creation of every organism and imply that all species evolve from common ancestors
through a process called natural selection.
While on his visit to Galapagos Islands, he had observed. that organisms are geographically
distributed and isolated on the separate islands. He noted that similar animal types show
distinct differences in body form and functions from island to island.
He explained that these differences represent adaptations to differing environment. Darwin
believed that over the course of time isolated groups of animals had become reproductively
Isolated, and then gradually they become separate species.
What is adaptation?
Adaptation is a set of genetically acquired traits that make the organism better suited to its
environment. Individuals with advantageous adaptations are more likely to survive and
reproduce than those individuals lacking the adaptations.
What is Natural Selection?
Natural selection is the mechanism Darwin proposed for how evolution comes about.
Natural selection refers to the differential survival and reproduction of organisms. He stressed
that in a population, the fittest organisms are those possessing characteristics that allow them
to acquire more resources, survive, and reproduce more than the less fit.
What does the phrase "survival of the fittest" mean?
The phrase survival of the fittest relates to fitness. Fitness depends on how well certain traits
can function in their specific environment. It includes the organism's ability to survive, to mate,
and to reproduce successfully. It does not necessarily mean biggest, fastest, or strongest. A trait
may have high fitness in one environment and low fitness in another.
How are the concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest related?
Because some survive better than others, natural selection tends to eliminate less fit
characteristics. The fittest are those with favorable traits adapted to a specific environment. For
example, camels and cactuses are adapted to live in dry places like desert. This is because
camels are capable of storing large amount of water on their back. Similarly, cactuses store
water on their fleshy tissues that prevent them from dehydration. Other plants and animals.
which lack traits similar to camels and cactuses cannot live as well in such excessively dry
places.
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Evidences of evolution are divided into two groups: direct and indirect.
What does it mean by direct evidence?
Direct evidence is something that can be directly observed or seen. Fossils are the remains or
impression left by an animal or by plants preserved in the earth crust. A considerable number of
experts claim that fossils provide direct evidence for evolution
What does it mean by indirect evidence?
Indirect evidence is something that does not involve actual observation of evolution but for
which we can infer that evolution has taken place. Many scientists considered genetics,
comparative anatomy, embryology, and biogeography as indirect evidences for evolution.
How do homologous, analogous and vestigial structures indicate that evolution has or has not
occurred?
Similar different species irrespective their functions are called homologous structures descent
from common ancestor. Homology seems to indicate descent from common ancestor. The limb
skeletons of vertebrates are homologous structures.
Analogous structures are structures, which are different in appearance but have the same
function. Analogy does not indicate common ancestry. Examples of analogous structures are
the legs of insects and mammals, and wings of butterflies and birds.
Vestigial structures seem to provide further evidence for evolutionary change. Vestigial
structures are anatomical features that are usually reduced and have no function in many
organisms. These are organs that were once functional in the ancestors of the species but are
only remnants in the present species. For example, skeletal limbs found in some snakes have no
known use to these animals. In humans, appendix is thought to have no use, but in other
mammals it aids in the digestion of cellulose.
What other vestigial structures are thought to be found in humans?
How can genetics and molecular biology support evolution?
Living things shared several similar biochemical molecules, such as DNA, ATP, amino acids, and
enzymes. This finding supports descent from a common ancestor. The more closely related
organisms are the more similar in their biochemical makeup.
How can biogeography prove descent from common ancestor?
biogeography is the study of the distributions of organisms. Darwin's trip around South America
allowed him to observe the diversity of organisms in different areas and the resemblance of
such species of birds and tortoises in an island to nearby mainland. Darwin believed that the
group of animals in each island is adapted to a different way of life. the common ancestors of
these organisms had come from one locale, spreading out into other accessible areas.
How can embryology tell whether evolution has or has not occurred?
the unity of plan shared by vertebrates extends to their embryological development. the
embryonic development of all vertebrates shows remarkable similarities. at some time during
development, all vertebrates have a supporting dorsal rod, called a notochord, and exhibit
paired pharyngeal pouches. this could indicate that an organism passes through some of the
embryonic stages that its ancestors passed through. then several modifications happen in ways
appropriate to an organism's final form.
How can embryology tell whether evolution has or has not occurred?
the unity of plan shared by vertebrates extends to their embryological development. the
embryonic development of all vertebrates shows remarkable similarities. at some time during
development, all vertebrates have a supporting dorsal rod, called a notochord, and exhibit
paired pharyngeal pouches. this could indicate that an organism passes through some of the
embryonic stages that its ancestors passed through. then several modif bations happen in ways
appropriate to an organism's f hal form.
The Mechanisms of Evolution
GENETIC DRIFT
- This theory came from the observation that some individuals in a population are more
likely to survive longer and have more of spring than others, thus, they will pass on
more of their genes. to the next generation, For example, a a male gorilla who's bigger
and stronger will become a pack leader, the alpha. The alpha will get to mate more than
their underlings, who are smaller and weaker, so the alpha will father more offspring.
This will make the future generation of these gorillas to be more powerful and bigger.
This is because of the selection pressure, driving selective force, were the only one
acting on the population.
- This theory came from the observation that some individuals in a population are more
likely to survive longer and have more of spring than others, thus, they will pass on
more of their genes to the next generation. For example, a male gorilla who's bigger and
stronger will become a pack leader, the alpha. The alpha will get to mate to mate more
than their underlings, who are smaller and weaker, so the alpha will father more
offspring. This v This will make the future generation of these gorillas to be more
powerful and bigger. This is because of the selection pressure, driving selective force,
were the only one acting on the population.
- The gene pool is affected by genetic drift is simply due to chance. A male organism could
father more of spring simply because they are at the right place, at the right time (in the
presence of a receptive female).
- Small populations are more of affected by this force; large populations are however not
that affected as there is a buffer against the effect of chance. This force, unlike natural
selection does not choose which trait will benefit the organisms more.
- Natural disasters that kill at random a large population, can magnify genetic drift, known
as the bottleneck of effect. This result to suddenly wiping out of a huge portion of the
genome, an organism's complete set of genetic instructions. The population's entire
genetic structure is dependent of its survivors, which is very different from the pre-
disaster population.
- Founder of effect is when some portion of the population leaves to start a new
population in a new location or if a physical barrier divides a population. The founder
effect occurs when the genetic structure changes to match that of the new population's
founding fathers and mothers.
GENE FLOW
- Gene flow is another important factor in evolution, gene flow is the flow of alleles in
and out of a population due to the migration of individuals or gametes. For example,
many plants send their pollen far and wide, through the wind or other organisms
(pollinators), to pollinate other populations of the same species from This variable flow
of individuals out of the group not or changes the population's gene structure, but it can
also introduce Introduce new genetic variation to populations in different geological
locations and habitats.
MUTATION
Mutations are the changes that occur to an organism's DNA and are very important driver of
diversity in populations. This enables organisms to change over time. The appearance of new
mutations. is the most common way to introduce novel genotypic and phenotypic variance.
They could be either favorable or unfavorable, though harmful ones are quickly eliminated by
natural selection. Those beneficial ones get to be spread through the population. Whether for
not it is beneficial or detrimental is determined by how it support an organism to survive to
sexual maturity and reproduce. Some mutations do not do anything and can linger, unaffected
by natural selection, in the genome. Some can have a dramatic effect on a gene and the
resulting phenotype.
NONRANDOM MATING
In this mechanism, an individual may either prefer to mate with others of the same genotype or
of different genotypes. One reason this occurs is because of mate choice. For example, female
peahens may prefer peacocks with bigger, brighter tails. Natural selection picks traits that lead
to more mating selections for an individual. One common form of mate choice, called
assortative mating, is an individual's preference to mate with partners who are phenotypically
similar to themselves.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
This mechanism is due to human intervention. Humans cause selection because they select
which phenotypes of organisms will be beneficial. This practice has been used for so much in
the human history, it was a factor that gave people to produce crops and animals that are more
efficient or have desirable traits, such as plants that produce larger fruits and vegetables, or
cows that produce more milk. It also helps to eradicate some undesirable diseases.
RECOMBINATION
Genetic diversity can also arise from recombination of the DNA from two different cells (via
transformation, transduction, or conjugation). By transferring advantageous alleles, such as
ones for antibiotic resistance, genetic recombination can promote adaptive evolution in
prokaryotic populations.
NATURAL SELECTION
This is the most famous mechanism of evolution, and the most widely accepted one. Natural
selection is the reproduction of individuals with favorable genetic traits that survive
environmental change because of those traits, leading to evolutionary change. This happens
when an allele makes an organism have beneficial or detrimental traits, and those traits that
will be beneficial for an organism's survival and perpetuity will be chosen over the ones that are
non-beneficial or harmful. Allele that reduces an organism's chance for survival and
reproduction gets eradicated over time.