MODULE 1
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF FORENSIC SCIENCE:
The Fundamental Principles form the backbone of all forensic
investigation.
They guide how evidence is collected, preserved, analysed, and
presented in courts.
1. LOCARD'S PRINCIPLE OF EXCHANGE:
It was proposed by Edmond Locard.
Statement: “Every contact leaves a trace.”
It states that whenever two objects or persons come into
contact, there is a mutual transfer of materials between them.
In simple terms, a criminal will both leave something behind at
the crime scene & take something away from the crime scene.
Examples: Vehicle hits a person, paint from car transfers to
victim & fibers from victim’s clothes stick to car.
It mainly deals with trace evidence like air, fibers, fingerprints,
blood and bodily fluids, paint chips etc.
It helps establish a link between:
o Suspect ↔ Crime scene
o Victim ↔ Suspect
LIMITATIONS:
Not Always Detectable;
Environmental Factors may destroy evidence.
Evidence may disappear over time.
2. PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY:
Statement: Every object (natural or man-made) is unique &
distinguishable from all others.
This principle is strongly associated with Edmond Locard, who
emphasized that "No two objects are exactly identical, even if
they appear similar."
It is based on the idea that absolute identity between two
objects is impossible in nature, each object accumulates unique
characteristics.
Examples: Fingerprints (no two people have identical
fingerprints), DNA profiles.
IMPORTANCE:
Helps establish identity of a suspect.
Provides strong evidentiary value in courts.
LIMITATIONS:
Human Error can occur.
Environmental Effects may alter characteristics.
3. PRINCIPLE OF PROGRESSIVE CHANGE:
Statement: All physical evidence changes over time.
This means that once a crime is committed, the condition of the
scene and the evidence does not remain static—it gradually
changes due to natural, environmental, and human factors.
Evidence is time-sensitive. The longer the delay in examination,
the greater the alteration, degradation, or loss of evidentiary
value.
NATURE OF CHANGES IN EVIDENCE:
A. Physical Changes: Alteration in size, shape, or structure.
Examples: Tire marks fading on roads.
B. Chemical Changes: Changes in chemical composition over time.
Examples: Blood stains oxidizing and changing colour (bright
red → dark brown).
C. Biological Changes: Decomposition caused by microorganisms.
Example: Human body decomposition.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT:
o Heat → speeds up decomposition
o Rain → washes away trace evidence
o Sunlight → degrades fibers, DNA
o Wind → disperses particles
IMPORTANCE:
Investigators must act quickly to preserve evidence.
Evidence Preservation must be proper packaging.
4. PRINCIPLE OF COMPARISON:
Statement: Only like can be compared with like.
It means that a questioned (unknown) sample can be analyzed
only by comparing it with a known (standard) sample of the
same type.
Evidence collected from the crime scene (called questioned
evidence) has no meaning by itself unless it is compared with a
reference sample.
2 TYPES OF SAMPLES:
QUESTIONED SAMPLE: Found at the crime scene. Example:
bloodstain, hair, fingerprint.
KNOWN SAMPLE: Collected from a known source. Example:
suspect’s blood, hair, fingerprints.
Conclusion is drawn only after comparison of these two.
Example: Comparing crime scene blood with suspect’s blood.
IMPORTANCE:
It helps establish identity or origin of evidence.
It links suspect, victim, and crime scene.
It provides reliable evidence in court.
5. PRINCIPLE OF ANALYSIS:
Statement: Forensic analysis must be conducted using
validated scientific methods.
It means that evidence should be examined carefully using
proper techniques without altering or destroying its original
nature, so that results are accurate and admissible in court.
This principle ensures scientific, accurate, and reliable
examination of evidence.
Without proper analysis, evidence may become inadmissible,
results may be challenged in court.
IMPORTANCE:
Ensures reliability of forensic evidence.
Fair trial process.
Admissibility in court.
Scientific credibility.
6. PRINCIPLE OF PROBABILITY:
Statement: Forensic conclusions are based on probability, not
absolute certainty (except in rare cases like DNA).
It states that it is often impossible to say something is 100%
certain. Instead, experts evaluate:
How likely it is that evidence came from a particular
source;
Whether similarities between samples are due to
coincidence or actual connection.
Thus, conclusions are expressed in probabilistic terms such as
“Highly probable”, “Very likely”, “Consistent with”, “Cannot be
excluded.”
Example: Matching bullets to a firearm is based on similar
striation patterns & expressed as “Consistent with being fired
from the same weapon”.
IMPORTANCE:
Prevents experts from making exaggerated claims
Helps Judges Evaluate Evidence: Courts assess strength of
probability, possibility of coincidence.
Experts present findings in statistical terms.
BRANCHES IN FORENSIC SCIENCE
1. Forensic Biology: It deals with biological evidence found at
crime scenes like blood, semen, saliva, hair, tissues
2. Forensic Chemistry: Study of chemical analysis of substances
like drugs, poisons, explosives.
3. Forensic Toxicology: Study of poisons and toxic substances in
the body.
4. Forensic Pathology: Deals with determining the cause and
manner of death.
5. Forensic Anthropology: Study of human bones and skeletal
remains.
6. Forensic Odontology: Study of teeth and dental evidence.
7. Forensic Psychology: Application of psychology in criminal
investigations.
8. Forensic Entomology: Study of insects in criminal cases.
9. Forensic Geology: Study of soil, minerals, and earth materials.
10. Forensic Serology: Study of bodily fluids like Blood groups,
semen, saliva.
11. Forensic Ballistics: Study of firearms and ammunition.
12. Cyber Forensics: Focuses on electronic evidence.
13. Forensic Engineering: Application of engineering
principles to investigate accidents and structural failures.
SNIFFER DOG
A sniffer dog is a specially trained dog used by law enforcement
agencies to detect specific Odors such as narcotics, explosives,
blood and human remains etc.
Dogs are used because their olfactory ability is 10,000–100,000
times stronger than humans.
Often breeds like German Shepherds, Labradors & Bloodhounds
are useful in tracking suspects, identifying objects touched by
criminals & locating hidden evidence.
TYPES OF SNIFFER DOGS:
(a) NARCOTICS DETECTION DOGS: Detect drugs like heroin,
cocaine, cannabis, etc. Used in airports, borders, and raids.
(b) EXPLOSIVES DETECTION DOGS: Identify bombs, explosives,
& chemicals. Used in anti-terror operations and public security.
(c) TRACKER DOG: Follow the trail of a suspect using ground
scent. Useful in murder, kidnapping, and robbery cases.
(d) CADAVER DOGS: Detect human remains, even decomposed
bodies or buried remains.
(e) ARSON DOGS: Detect accelerants like petrol, kerosene used in
fires.
TRAINING OF THESE DOGS:
Training begins at a young age. (usually 6–12 months)
It is based on positive reinforcement. (reward system)
Dogs are trained to associate a smell with a reward. (toy/food)
Exposure to different environments. (crowds, noise, vehicles)
Regular re-certification is required.
Abdul Razak Murtaja Dafadar v. State of Maharashtra
Dog squad was used to track accused. The Supreme Court held that
dog tracking evidence is not fully reliable alone and must be
supported by other evidence.