Chapter - 23
Plant Growth Regulators
Pooja Maurya and Abdul Mazeed
Introduction
Plant Growth Regulators conventionally called plant hormones, these
substances play vital role in plant growth and development. These are signal
molecules, present in trace quantities in plant tissues and make changes in
their concentration and tissue sensitivity can mediate a whole range of
developmental processes in plants, many of which involve interactions with
environmental factors. Plant growth regulators function as chemical
messengers for intercellular communication.
There are five major plant growth regulators namely-
1. Auxin
2. Cytokinins
3. Gibberellins
4. Abscisic acid (ABA)
5. Ethylene
Some other compounds which also affect and regulate growth and
development such as:
i) Brassinosteriods
ii) Polymines
iii) Jasmonic acid
iv) Salicyclic acid
v) Novel compounds
Auxin
It is synthesized in stem and root apices and transported to axial portion
of plants. Its concentration in tissue is regulated by its synthesis. Precursor of
auxin is tryptophan.
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Role of Auxins: Plays important roles in a number of plant activities,
including development of embryo, leaf formation, phototropism and
gravitropism.
The development of embryo from the very fisrst mitotic division of the
zygote, gradients of auxin guide the patterning of the embryo into the parts
that will become the organs of the plant. The gravitropism defined as the
plant shoots display negative gravitropism when placed on its side, a plant
shot will grow up and roots display positive gravitropism i.e. they grow
downwards.
The plant hormone auxin causes plant cells to elongate. When a shoot is
directly under light, auxin produced in the growing tip spreads equally down
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both sides of the plant. If light is from one side only, auxin collects on the
shady side causing the cells on that side to elongate. That lopsided
elongation produces a bend in the plant stem.
Apical dominance: The growth of shoot apex (terminal shoot) usually
inhibits the development of the lateral buds on the stem beneath. This
phenomenon is called apical dominance. Apical dominance seems to results
from the downward transport of auxin produced in the apical meristem.
Fruit development: pollination of the flowers of angiosperms initiates
the formation of seeds. As the seeds mature, they release auxin to the
surrounding flower parts, which develop into the fruit that covers the seeds.
Abscission: Auxin also plays a role in the abscission of leaves and
fruits, young leaves and fruits produce auxin and so long as they do so, they
remain attached to the stem. When the level of auxin declines, a special layer
of cells-the abscission layer forms at the base of the petiole or fruit stalk.
Soon the petiole or fruit stalk breaks free at this point and the leaf or fruit
falls to the ground.
Root initiation and development: The localized accumulation of auxin
in epidermal cells of the root initiates the formation of lateral or secondary
roots. Auxin also stimulates the formation of adventitious roots in many
species. Adventitious roots grow from stems or leaves rather than from the
regular root system of the plant.
Cytokinin
• In 1913, Gottlib Haberlandt discovered a compound found in
phloem that can stimulate cell division in potato parenchyma.
• In 1941, Johannes Van Overbeek discovered the milky endosperm
form coconut also had the ability of division.
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• In 1955, Carlos Miller, a graduate student in Folke Skoog’s
laboratory, identified kinetin from herring sperm.
• In 1961-1963, Miller and Letham independently isolate zeatin, a
naturally occurring cytokinin, form maize.
Synthesis of Cytokinin
Cytokinins are synthesized de novo from 5’-AMP and dephosphorylated
hermiterpene and it can be defined structurally as adenine derivatives with an
isopentenyle based side chain attached to the N6 amino group.
Role of Cytokinins
1) Control morphogenesis: In plant tissue culture, cytokinin is
required for the growth of a callus (an undifferentiated, tumor-like
mass of cells): ratio of cytokinin and auxin are important in
determining the fate of the callus.
2) Crown Gall: Tumor-like mass of undifferentiated cells that
typically occurs near the crown (Junction of root and stem) of the
plant caused by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciencs carries a
plasmid (Ti plasmid; a plasmid is a small loop of non-chromosomal
DNA) with loci/genes for auxin production (tms), zeatin production
(tmr) and opines (are nitrogen-containing molecules that provide
food for the bacteria) upon infection, the plasmid is incorporated
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into the plant cell genome which begins to overproduce auxin and
cytokinin and stem forms an undifferentiated tumor known as
crown gall.
3) Regulates the cell cycle/cell division: Thatswhy the name
“cytokinins” especially by controlling the transition from G2 to
mitosis.
4) Delay senescence: It is the programmed aging process that occurs
in plants and other organisms for that matter. The loss of
chlorophyll, RNA, protein and lipids. Cytokinin application to an
intact leaf markedly reduces the extent and rate of chlorophyll and
protein degradation and leaf drops.
5) Greening promotes the light-induced formation of cholorophyll.
6) Promote lateral bud development: Cytokinin application to
dormant buds will cause them to develop. A witch brom is causes
by a pathogen such as the bacterium Corynebacterium fascians that
produces cytokinin lateral bud development which leads to
branching.
7) Promotes cell expansion: Cytokinins stimulate the expansion of
cotyledons.
Cytokinins
• 6-Furfurylaminoopurine (Kinetin) (K)
• 6- Benzylaminopurin (BAP)
• N-Isopentenylaminopurine (2iP)
• Zeatin (Zea)
Gibberellins
It was discovered by Japanese Scientist E. Kurosawa in 1926; isolated
from the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi which causes Bakanae disease also
called foolish seedling in rice which leads to excessive shoot elongation,
yellowish green leaves, tallter plants with absent or poorly developed grains
and frequent lodging due to long stature.
Synthesis of Gibberellins: Gibberellic acids are produced by the
terpenoid pathway and are tetracyclic diterpenes containing either C19 or C20
carbon atoms.
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Role of Gibberellins
1) Most important characteristic of Gibberellic acid on shoot growth
which leads to increased internode extension, increased leaf-growth
and enhanced apical dominance.
2) Influence many reproductive process.
3) Induce formation of cones in conifers.
4) Many forms of dormancy are broken by gibberellic acid. These
include seed dormancy, dormancy of potato tubers and dormancy of
shoot internodes and buds.
5) Gibberellins are involved in the natural process of germinaton.
Before the photosynthetic apparatus develops sufficiently in the
early stages of germination, the stored energy reserves of starch
nourish the seedling.
6) Usually in germination, the breakdown of starch to glucose in the
endosperm begins shortly after the seed is exposed to water.
Gibberellins in the seed embryo are believed to signal starch
hydrolysis through inducing the synthesis of the enzyme α-amylase
in the aleurone cells.
7) Gibberellic acid also breaks certain forms of dormancy broken in
natural conditions by exposure to low temperature called as
vernalization.
8) Retard leaf and fruit senescence.
9) Exogenous gibberellic acid application can induced flowering in
species that ordinarily require cold treatment to bloom.
10) Some of them are isolated from both fungus and plants.
Abscisic acid (ABA): Abscisic acid plays an important role in
adaptation to abiotic stresses, seed development, and seed germination.
Synthesis: ABA is sesquiterpenoid (15 carbon) and is sysnthesized form
C15 and C40 compounds in plants.
Role of abscisic acid
1) Abscisic acid owes its names to its role in abscission layer
formation in plant leaves.
2) In preparation for winter, ABA is produced in terminal buds.
3) This slows plant growth and directs leaf primordial to develop
scales to protect the dormant buds during the cold season.
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4) ABA also inhibits the division of cells in the vascular cambium,
adjusting to cold conditions in the winter by suspending primary
and secondary growth.
5) It causes seed dormancy (inhibits seed germination).
6) Abscisic acid is also produced in the roots in response to decreased
soil water potential and other situations in which the paltn may be
under stress.
7) ABA translocates to the leaves, where it rapidly alters the osmotic
potential of stomatal guard cells, causing them to shrink and
stomata to close.
8) The ABA-induced stomatal closure reduces transpiration, thus
preventing further water loss form the leaves in times of low water
availability.
Ethylene
Ethylene is small hydrocarbon gas and it is the most commercially
produced organic compound in the world and is used in many industrial
application. It is also naturally occurring gas. In 1934, Gane identified that
plants could synthesise ethylene and in 1935 Crocker proposed ethylene to
be the hormone responsible for fruit ripening and senescence of vegetative
tissues.
Apples and pears are examples of fruit that produces ethylene with
ripeninig. Ethylene is responsible for the changes in texture, softening, color,
and other processes involved in ripening. Commercial ripening rooms use
“catalytic generators” to make ethylene gas form a liquid supply of ethanol.
During the life of the plat, ethylene production is induced during certain
stages of growth such as germination, ripening of fruits, abscission of leaves,
and senescence of flowers.
Ethylene production can also be induced by a variety of external aspects
such as mechanical wounding, environmental stresses, and certain chemicals
including auxin and other regulators.
Synthesis
Ethylene is synthesized in plants form S-adenosyle-L-methionine
(SAM) via the intermediatate 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid
(ACC) diffuses out from the cell after its synthesis.
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Role of Ethylene
Ethylene induced many physiological responses like:
• Growth effects: Inhibits longitudinal but promotes horizontal
growth.
• Geotropic response regulation.
• Apical dominance togather/downstream of auxin.
• Breaks dormancy
• Gas produced by one plant will affect nearby plants.
Application of Ethylene
There is great interest in down-regulation of ethylene biosynthesis as its
high concentrations can trigger and subsequently over ripening in banana,
apples, tomatoes, mangoes etc. therefore two important enzymes ACC
oxidase or ACC synthase are target of antisense technology.
Brassinosteroids
It was discovered by Mitchell et al., reported promotion in stem
elongation and cell division by the treatment of organic extracts of rapseed
(Brassica napus) pollen.
Brassionolide was the first isolated brassionosteroid in 1979. A crude
extract of pollen form Brassica napus induced a rapid elongation of bean
internodes that was distinct from GA mediated stem elongation. The work
lead to the isolation and identification of the first steroidal plant growth
regulator. Bressiono steroids are a group of some 40 different steroids that
are synthesized by plants and are potent hormones affecting many aspects of
plant growth. These hormones act synergistically, or at least additively, with
several other hormones such as auxin and the gibberellins. Hardly credible
report on tissue culture use.
Synthesis: They are synthesized from campesterol, structurally they are
C27-C28.
Role of Brassinosteriods
It promotes apical dominance and leaf senescence, enhances seed
germination, increases the production of ethylene, inhibits the formation of
stomata, promote the formation of xylem, prevent premature abscission of
fruit, and increase resistance to freezing, increases the yield of wheat and
rice, pollen elongation, pollen tube growth, reorientation cellulose
microfibrils.
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Polyamines
The polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary
amino groups-NH. Polyamines concentrations correlate with cell division
frequency. They stimulate many reactions involved in the synthesis of DNA,
RNA and proteins. Polyamines are essential for all living organisms and
without the ability to synthesize polyamines, living cells will not survive.
Role of polyamines
In plants, polyamines elicit diverse physiological responses including-
cell division and root initiation, tuber formation, embryo genesis, flower
development, fruit ripening.
Most frequently found polymers are- puterscine, spermidine,
cadaverine.
Jasmonic acid
Jasmonic acid was isolated from cultured filtrates of a fungus as a plant
growth inhibitor. Jasmonic acid is derived from the fatty acid linolenic acid.
Methyl jasmonate and cis-jasmonate and cis-jasmone are well known in the
perfume industry as fragrant components of the essential oils of jasmine.
Jasmonic acid shows stimulatory effect on the development of isolated garlic
buds, after two weeks of culture.
Role of Jasmonic acid
The major function of jasmonic acid and its various metabolites is
regulating plant responses to abiotic and biotic stresses as well as
development. Regulate plant growth and development processes include
growth inhibition, senescence, tendril coiling, flower development and leaf
abscission. JA is also responsible for timber formation in potatoes, yams and
onions. It has an important role in responses to wounding of plants and
systemic acquired resistance. When plants are attacked by insects, they
respond by releasing JA, which activates the expression of protease
inhibitors, among many other anti-herbivore defense compounds. These
protease inhibitors prevent proteolytic activity of the insects’ digestive
proteases or “salivary proteins”, thereby stopping them form acquiring the
needed nitrogen in the protein for their own growth.
Salicylic acid
Salicylic acid is a phenolic phytochrome. It is found in plants with roles
in plant growth and development, photosynthesis, transpiration, ion uptake
and transport. SA is involved in endogenous signaling, mediating in plant
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defense against pathogens. It plays a role resistance to pathogens by inducing
the production of pathogenesis-related proteins. It is involved in the systemic
acquired resistance (SAR) in which a pathogenic attack on one part of the
plant induces resistance in other parts. The signal can also move to nearby
plants by salicylic acid being converted to the volatile ester, methyl
salicylate. Tissue culture uses are not well documented.
Medicinal and cosmetic uses
Salicylic acid is known for its ability to ease aches and pains and reduce
fevers. Methyl salicylate is used to soothe joint and muscle pain. Choline
salicylate is used typically to relieve the pain of mouth ulcers. Salicylic acid
is a key ingredient in many skin-care products for the treatment of
dermatitis, acne, calluses and warts. Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is used to
reduce fever and relieve mild to moderate pain.
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