CHAPTER 9 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

9.1 STRUCTURE OF HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

●​ Water, inorganic salts and vitamins are absorbed directly by human body.
●​ Starch, protein and fats must be digested first before they are absorbed.

Digestive System
Part Organs Function

Digestive tract Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Physical digestion +

(Alimentary Stomach → Small intestine → Large push food down
canal) intestine → Rectum → Anus (peristalsis)

Digestive glands Salivary glands, Gastric glands, Liver, Secrete digestive

Pancreas, Intestinal glands, Small juices for chemical
intestine digestion
(All are made up of smooth muscles)​
(Liver is the largest digestive organ)​
(Small intestine: Longest (5–6m))
Digestive Tract Organs and their Functions

Step Organ Functions Remarks

1 Mouth Physical digestion: Cutting, Importance of proper

tearing and grinding of food by chewing:
teeth and tongue

Chemical digestion: Starch • Easier swallowing

• Reduces physical
digestion in stomach

• Increase chemical
digestion in stomach

2 Pharynx Bolus pass through the pharynx

and enter the oesophagus
(peristalsis)

3 Oesophag No digestion, pushes bolus

us down to stomach (peristalsis)

4 Stomach Physical digestion: Grind and Contain hydrochloric

churn bolus into chyme acid (HCl)
(peristalsis)

Chemical digestion: Protein • Kills bacteria

• Aid in digestion

• Protect stomach wall

• Provide acidic
environment

• Stop action of salivary

amylase

5 Small Chemical digestion: Starch, • Main site for digestion

intestine Protein, Fats and absorption

Duodenum receives: • Longest part of

digestive tract (5 to 6m)

• Bile (secreted by liver and • Divided into 3 parts:

stored in gall bladder) Duodenum, Jejunum,
Ileum
 • Pancreatic juice (secreted by
pancreas)

6 Large Absorbs water, forms faeces, no

intestine digestion

7 Rectum & Egestion (faeces removed)

Anus

9.2 DIGESTION OF FOOD

Digestion

Digestion: Digestion is the process of breaking down food from big molecules into
small molecules for absorption.

1. Types of Digestion

Physical Digestion

Cutting, grinding, mixing of food, churning. No enzymes involved.

Chemical Digestion

Mixing of digestive juices (enzymes) with food to break big molecules into small
molecules.

Enzymes

Enzymes are organic substances produced by living cells that have catalytic power.

2. Characteristics as Biocatalysts

●​ Optimum temperature: Highest efficiency, body temperature

●​ Optimum pH
●​ Specific (lock & key mechanism)
●​ Needed in small amount
●​ Speed up chemical reaction
●​ Not used up or changed after reaction
Digestive Enzymes

Organ Digesti Digestiv pH Carbohyd Proteins Fats

ve e Juice Level rates
Gland

Mouth Salivary Saliva Neutral Salivary - -

glands (6.6–7.1) amylase:
Starch →
Maltose

Stomach Gastric Gastric Acidic - Pepsin: -

glands juice (0.9–1.5) Protein →
Polypeptide
s

Duoden Liver Bile Alkaline - - Bile

um emulsifies
fats → oil
droplets

Duoden Pancreas Pancreati Basic Pancreatic Pancreatic Lipase:

um c juice amylase: trypsin: Fats →
Starch → Polypeptide Fatty acids
Maltose s → Amino + Glycerol
acids

Small Intestinal Intestinal Basic Maltose → - -

intestine glands juice Glucose

Final Products of Digestion

●​ Starch → Glucose
●​ Protein → Polypeptide → Amino acids
●​ Fat → Fatty acids + Glycerol
9.3 ABSORPTION

Structural Features of Villi

●​ Villi (finger-like) structure

●​ Many blood capillaries and lacteal
●​ Thin walls (one cell thick)

Function

●​ Large total surface area for absorption

●​ Thin walls to allow diffusion
●​ Rich blood supply

Absorbed Nutrients

From blood capillaries

●​ Glucose
●​ Amino acids
●​ Water-soluble vitamins

From lacteal

●​ Fatty acids
●​ Glycerol
●​ Fat-soluble vitamins

Teeth and Mastication

Types of Teeth

●​ Incisors: Cut food

●​ Canines: Tear food
●​ Premolars and molars: Help molars to grind food
●​ Molars: Grind food
Structure of Tooth

3 Parts

●​ Crown
●​ Neck
●​ Root

Layers

●​ Enamel: Hardest layer

●​ Dentine
●​ Pulp: Contains blood vessels and nerves

EXPERIMENT

Digestion of Starch by Salivary Amylase

Test Tube A

Starch solution + Saliva

Test Tube B

Starch solution + Distilled water

Results
Contents Iodine Test Result

Starch solution + Saliva Starch is absent, remains yellowish

brown

Starch solution + Distilled Starch is still present, turns dark blue

water

Visking Tubing

●​ Semi-permeable membrane
●​ Represent the small intestine

Result

Big starch molecules cannot diffuse out.​

Small glucose molecules diffuse out.
CHAPTER 8 FOOD AND NUTRITION

8.1 NUTRITIVE MATTER IN FOOD

Main Types of Nutrients

Water Inorganic salts Saccharides
(Minerals) (Carbohydrates)

Fats Proteins Vitamins

<- Dietary fibres ->

Functions of Nutrients

CLASSES FUNCTION FOOD SOURCES

Water - Transport essential nutrients -

to all body parts

Saccharides - Main sources of energy Rice, wheats, potatoes,

(Carbohydrates) maize

Proteins - Main materials for building cell Meat, eggs, fish, dairy
structures products (milk), beans

Fats - Provides stored energy - Plant oil, animal oil,

Insulation to vital organs walnuts, ground nuts

Dietary fibres - Promote bowel movement - Vegetables

(contain cellulose) Reduce chances of colon cancer

Inorganic salts - Involved in physiological -

(Minerals) activities

Vitamins - Involved in physiological -

activities
How to Test Nutritive Components

TEST REAGENT NUTRITIVE COMPONENT POSITIVE RESULT

Biuret reagent Proteins Light blue to purple

Millon’s reagent Proteins Colourless to brick red

precipitate

Fehling’s Reducing sugars Blue to brick red precipitate

solution

Iodine solution Starch Yellowish brown to dark blue

Sudan III solution Fats Red emulsion appears

DCPIP Vitamin C Blue to colourless

Food and Energy

Saccharides, fats and proteins release energy by carrying out oxidation in the body.​
Fats contain the highest amount of energy.

NUTRIENT ENERGY

1 gram of saccharides 16.8 kJ

1 gram of proteins 16.8 kJ

1 gram of fats 37.8 kJ

Experiment to determine the energy released

●​ The water temperature rise reflects the heat energy released by the oxidation
of the food.
●​ Higher temperature rise → More energy
●​ Chemical energy → Heat energy
8.2 NUTRITION AND HEALTH

Rational Nutrition (Balanced diet)

●​ As many types of food intake daily

●​ Adequate amount of food intake
●​ Reasonable proportions of various nutrients
●​ Meets the needs of the body

Factors Affecting Diet

●​ Age
●​ Gender
●​ Intensity of activity
●​ Health condition

Unbalanced Nutrition

OVEREATING

Obesity: Excessive energy stored as fats in the subcutaneous layer of the skin,
around internal organs and human waist.

MALNUTRITION

Disease Cause Symptoms

Marasmus Lack of Thin body, wrinkled

energy skin

Kwashiorkor Lack of Swelling (oedema)

protein
Marasmic Lack of both Mixed symptoms
Kwashiorkor

Deficiency in Nutrients

NUTRIENTS DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

Dietary Constipation
fibres

Zinc Impairs functioning of child’s taste buds, loss of

appetite

Iron Anaemia

Iodine Swollen thyroid gland, mental retardation

Calcium Rickets, Osteoporosis

NUTRIENTS DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

Vitamin A Dry skin, night blindness, xerophthalmia

Vitamin B Neuritis, beriberi, indigestion, loss of

appetite

Vitamin C Scurvy, low resistance to diseases

Vitamin D Rickets, osteoporosis

Vitamin E Infertility

Vitamin K Prolong process of blood clotting

BALANCED DIET

Food Pyramid

●​ Bottom: Eat more (grains, vegetables)

●​ Top: Eat less (fats, sugar)

4 CONCERN ABOUT FOOD SAFETY

●​ Food spoilage due to bacterial

contamination
●​ Pesticides, toxic chemicals and
hormones
●​ Safety problems of fortified food that have not been proven to be harmless
●​
CHAPTER 7 CONVERSION AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

7.1 INTER-CONVERSION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY AND HEAT ENERGY:

NOTES

Conversion of Mechanical Energy to Heat Energy

●​ Work is a measure of energy transformation.

●​ Amount of work done on an object by external force = Amount of mechanical
energy converted into heat energy.

Examples:

●​ Starting a fire by friction (rubbing wood together).

●​ Human buttocks become warm after sliding down a slide
●​ Sparks form when a knife is honed
●​ A space station entering the Earth’s atmosphere burns up due to friction with
the air.

Conversion of Heat Energy to Mechanical Energy

●​ Amount of work object does externally = Amount of heat energy converted

into mechanical energy.
●​ Drop in temperature as the heat energy decreases causes mist formation.

Examples:

●​ Mist around the bottle mouth when cap is opened

●​ Geysers found around active volcano area, will spurt out hot spring water
intermittently
●​ Gas cylinder in a car engine
●​ Rocket use hot and compressed gas to push it forward
7.2 CONVERSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO THERMAL ENERGY:
NOTES

1. Thermal effect of current:

●​ Electric current passing through a conductor will generate heat in the

conductor
●​ This is due to resistance in the conductor. The higher the resistance, the
more heat is produced.
●​ Conversion of electrical energy into heat energy

2. Electric heating appliances

●​ Applied thermal effects of currents. (e.g. Toaster, iron, electric kettle, water
heater)
●​ An electric fan is not an electric heating appliance. Most of the electrical
energy is converted into mechanical energy, and a small part is converted
into thermal energy.

3. Factors related to electrical heating:

●​ Magnitude of the electric current.

●​ Magnitude of the electrical resistance.
●​ Amount of time of the current flow.

More heat is produced by a greater current, greater resistance and longer time of
current flow.

Experiment to investigate the factors related to electrical heating

●​ The flasks and glass tubes = Liquid thermometers.

Comparing flasks A, B and C

●​ Increased heights of the liquid levels in the glass tubes

●​ Increased temperatures
●​ Increased quantities of heat released by the resistance wires
7.3 CONVERSION AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: NOTES

1. Law of conservation of energy

●​ Energy can neither be destroyed nor created

●​ It can be transformed from one form into another.
●​ It can be transferred from one object to another.
●​ During processes of transformation or transfer, the total amount of energy
always remains constant.

2. Examples:

●​ Photosynthesis, Light energy → Chemical energy stored in organic

substances.
●​ Frog catching an insect: Chemical energy → Mechanical energy + heat energy

3. Pumped storage hydroelectric station:

●​ Function: Stores excess electricity during periods of low energy demand

(off-peak) for use at periods of high demand (peak hours). It solves the

●​ storage problem of alternating current.

Condition 1 Condition 2

Power Low demand (Night) High demand (Day)

Demand
Machine Pump-turbine acts as pump Pump-turbine acts as
Function generator

Water Lower reservoir → Upper reservoir Upper reservoir → Lower

Movement reservoir

Purpose Store excess energy Release stored electricity

Energy Electrical energy → Mechanical Mechanical energy →

Conversion energy (stored in water) Electrical energy
Chapter 6: Heat

6.1) Heat Transfer

A) Heat can transfer from a hot body to a cold body or from the hot part of a body
to the cooler part. This phenomenon is known as heat transfer.

B) If there is a difference of temperature between bodies or parts of a body, heat

transfer will take place until they reach the same temperature.

6.1.1) Heat Transfer and Its Measure

① The amount of heat absorbed or released by a body is called its quantity of

heat.

② The unit for the quantity of heat is Joule (J).

③ Joule is a smaller unit of heat.​

Its larger unit is kilojoule (kJ).

① The rise (or drop) in the temperature of a body is directly proportional to the
quantity of heat absorbed (or released) by the body.

② When heat transfer changes the temperature of a body, the heat absorbed or
released by the body is related to the degree of temperature change.

③ The higher the temperature raised, the more quantity of heat is absorbed.

↑ Temperature → ↑ Quantity of heat

④ The lower the temperature is dropped, the more quantity of heat is released.

↓ Temperature → ↑ Quantity of heat

6.1.2) Heat Transfer is Related to Our Daily Lives

① The human body has to be maintained at about 37°C.​

A body temperature that is too high or too low endangers life.

② At low temperatures, the dispersion of heat is too fast for a human body to
regulate its own temperature. As a result, a person who has just been pulled out of
cold water should be kept warm. High fever can damage the developing brain of a
baby.

③ For safety precautions, a cooling gel patch can be placed on the forehead of a
baby who is having a fever. Body temperature is reduced when heat is absorbed by
the evaporating water in the gel.

④ The body temperature of a poikilothermic (cold-blooded) animal cannot be

self-regulated. It has to be maintained by heat transfer with the external
environment.

6.1.3) The Relation between the Speed of Heat Transfer and

Difference in Temperature

A cup of hot water cools faster in the winter than when it is in the summer.​
Temperature change in the hot water reflects how fast heat is transferred.

↑ Difference in Temperature → ↑ Speed of Heat Transfer

6.2) Heat Energy

6.2.1 Thermal Motions

① Gases, solids and liquids are all made of particles such as molecules, atoms or
ions.​
These particles are moving irregularly all the time.

② The phenomena of diffusion and Brownian movement proved that particles of

matter are in constant irregular motion.

③ Since the degree of vigorousness in the irregular motions of particles in matter is

directly related to the temperature, we call the energy motions of the particles
thermal motions (thermal) of heat.

↑ Temperature → ↑ Irregular Motion

OR

↑ Temperature → ↑ Internal Particles Movement

① The energy possessed by a body due to the thermal motions of its large number
of internal particles is called thermal energy.

② The thermal energy of a body is related to the temperature of the body.

③ A higher temperature makes the thermal particles move more vigorously,

increases the average kinetic energy of the internal particles and increases the
thermal energy of the body.

↑ Temperature​
→ ↑ Internal Particles Movement​
→ ↑ Thermal Energy

① Since the particles that make up matter are in constant irregular motions, the
kinetic energy of the internal particles can never be zero.​
Thus, the thermal energy of a body can also never be zero.

② Example: In red-hot liquid steel or icy cold ice and snow, all matter possesses
thermal energy.

① One hot body releases certain quantity of heat, which causes a decrease in the
thermal energy and temperature of the body.

② The cold body, on the other hand, absorbs certain quantity of heat, which results
in an increase in thermal energy and temperature in it.

① Quantity of heat is a measure of the thermal energy transferred among bodies

during the process of heat transfer.

② The quantity of heat absorbed or released by body is equal to the increase or

decrease of heat in the body.​
Because of that, thermal energy is the same as the quantity of heat and has the
same unit of Joule (J).
6.3) Conduction

6.3.1 Conduction of Heat

① Conduction of heat is the heat flow through a body from the hot end to the cold
end. Heat transfer in solids is mainly via conduction.

② From the perspective of particle movements, conduction in reality is the process

of transferring the kinetic energy of more vigorous particles to less vigorous
particles as the energy moves through the matter.

① When heat is supplied, the particles near the source of the heat vibrate faster,
due to absorption of heat energy.

② These rapidly vibrating particles collide with neighbouring cooler particles,

causing them also to vibrate faster and thus energy transfer.

Note that in the process of heat transfer, particles itself does not move from one
end to the other, only energy does.

① All substances conduct heat, but different substances have different

conductivities.​
Substances which conduct heat easily are called good conductors of heat.​
All metals are good heat conductors.

② The metallic conductor of heat is silver, followed by copper and aluminium.

③ Descending order of conductivity of substances:

Silver > Copper > Aluminium > Iron > Rock > Glass > Brick > Water > Wood > Air

④ Silicon thermal gel pad possesses good heat conductivity. It is often used in
electronic devices that do not have heat fanning systems to speed up heat dispersal
between the heat releasing parts and the heat dispersing parts of devices.
6.5.2 Factors Affecting Radiation

a) Factor 1: Surface Colour

●​ A black surfaced body absorbs radiation better than a white surfaced body.
●​ However, black radiates heat better compared to a white surfaced body.

b) Factor 2: Surface Condition

●​ Under the same conditions, a rough body absorbs radiation better than a
smooth surface.
●​ Also, rough bodies radiate heat compared to smooth surfaces.

Figure 7.27: Experimental Set-up to Study Absorption and Radiation of Heat

Apparatus:

●​ Aluminium paint
●​ Black paint
●​ Wooden block
●​ Thermometer
●​ Bunsen burner

c) Effect of Surface Conditions on Daily Life

People wear white or light-coloured clothes in summer when it is hot to reduce

absorption of radiation.

In winter, people wear black or dark-coloured clothes to increase absorption of heat

radiation from the sun.
6.6 The Vacuum Flask

Structure of a Vacuum Flask

●​ The main body of a vacuum flask is a double-walled glass bottle in the

middle.
●​ The two glass walls are vacuum-plated and the space between the walls is a
vacuum.

Mechanism of a Vacuum Flask

1.​ Glass does not conduct heat well to reduce conduction.

2.​ The vacuum between the glass walls prevents heat transfer by conduction
and convection.
3.​ Hot water is poured into the glass bottle, while the silvered inner lining of the
bottle reflects heat back into the flask.
4.​ When filled with cold water, the silvered glass prevents external heat from
entering the flask.
5.​ The stopper of the vacuum flask is made of an insulating material such as
wood or plastic to prevent heat loss by conduction.

c) Function of the Vacuum Flask

The vacuum flask maintains the temperature in it by reducing the three ways of
heat transfer:

●​ Conduction
●​ Convection
●​ Radiation

to the minimum.