BASIC

WORKSHOP
CONTENTS :- PRACTICE
[Link] Workshop Page no
1. Fitting 2-17
2. Black smithy 18-28
3. Carpentry 29-49
4. Welding 49-63
5. Sheet metal 64-75
6. Plumbing 76-84
7. Power tools 85-87

Prepared by

Er. Lalo Chaudhary (amie)

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Objective:-
To familiarise with the basic manufacturing processes and to study the various tools
and equipment used, hands-on training is given in different sections. Essentially
student should know the labour involved, machinery or equipment necessary, time
required to fabricate and also should be able to estimate the cost of the product or job
work.

SAFETY PRECAUTION IN WORKSHOP

When entering workshop-Pick up your hearing and eye protectors and immediately
report to the workshop supervisor.
When exiting the workshop-Check that any tools you have been using have been
put away in the appropriate spots, cleaned up your work area and notify the
workshop staff.
Clothing & footwear-
 Safety glasses and hearing protection - every person entering the workshop must
collect these items from just inside the door. They must be worn at all times.
 Students that wear glasses should be aware these are not safety glasses, they are
only impact resistant and may shatter, safety glasses must be worn.
 All loose clothing (e.g. shirts hanging out) must be tucked in.
 Safety boots or enclosed shoes must be worn in the workshop. Do not enter under
any circumstances without this footwear, there are no exceptions to this rule.
 Long hair has to be tied up including fringes.
 Remove rings and loose jewellery before operating machinery they can be a hazard.

Behaviour-Fooling around and practical jokes in the workshop will not be tolerated.
These students will be told to leave.
First Aid-All accidents, cuts and abrasions must be reported before leaving the
workshop. If an accident does happen, no matter how small, it must be reported to
the workshop staff and an Accident Report Form filled out. Filling out this form is
imperative for any future complications resulting from an accident.
Fires or other emergencies-Think before reacting to any emergency in the
workshop, ensure you are reacting safely before you assist in an emergency. Do not
attempt to fight any fire unless you have been trained to do so.
Machinery usage-
When students are operating machinery all other students are to stay clear and not
to talk to the operator. If you feel uneasy or unsafe operating any tools or machinery
in the workshop, inform the workshop supervisor and help will be provided.
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FITTING SHOP
The term fitting, is related to assembly of parts, after bringing the dimension or shape to the
required size or form, in order to secure the necessary fit. The operations required for the same
are usually carried out on a work bench, hence the term bench work is also added with the name
fitting.

The bench work and fitting plays an important role in engineering. Although in today's
industries most of the work is done by automatic machines which produces the jobs with good
accuracy but still it (job) requires some hand operations called fitting operations. The person
working in the fitting shop is called fitter.

FITTING TOOLS:-

Fitting shop tools are classified as below:

[Link] Holding Devices/ Clamping Tools.

2. Measuring and Marking Tools.

[Link] Tools.

4. Striking Tools.

5. Drilling Tools.

6. Threading Tools.

I. WORK HOLDING DEVICES /CLAMPING TOOLS:

1. Work Bench

A fitting process can be done at various places, but most of the important
operations of fitting are generally carried out on a table called work bench. The work
bench is a strong, heavy and rigid table made up of hard wood. The size of the work
bench required is about 150 to 180cm length, nearly 90 cm width and approximately 76
to 84 cm height.

2. BENCH VICE:

It is firmly fixed to the bench with the help of nuts and bolts. It consists of a cast
Iron body and cast iron jaws. Two jaw plates are fitted on both the jaws. The holding
surface of the jaw plates is knurled in order to increase the gripping. Jaw plates are made
up of carbon steel and are wear resistant. One jaw is fixed to the body and the second
slides on a square threaded screw with the help of a handle. The jaws are opened up to
required length; job is placed in the two jaws and is fully tightened with the help of handle.
Handle is used to move the movable jaw.
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Bench vice

3. V Block

In V Block, V grooves are provided to hold the round objects longitudinally. The
screw of the clamp applies the holding pressure. When the handle is rotated there is
movement in the screw.
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II. MEASURING TOOLS

1. Steel Rule-

These are made up of stainless steel and are available in many sizes ranging
from 1/2 ft. to 2 ft. These are marked in inches or millimetres. All the faces are
machined true. The edges of steel rule should be protected from rough handling.

2. Callipers-

These are generally used to measure the inside or outside diameters. Different
types are:

i. Outside Calliper: It is used to measure the outside dimensions.

ii. Inside Calliper: It is used to measure the inside dimensions.

iii. Spring Calliper: Spring is provided to apply the pressure and lock nut is
provided to lock any desired position.

iv. Hermaphrodite, Jenny or Odd leg Calliper: One leg is bent at the tip
inwardly and the other has a straight pointed end. It is used to scribe lines parallel to
the straight edges.
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Jenny Calliper

3. Vernier Calliper: It is used for measuring the outer dimensions of round, flat,
square components and also the inner size of the holes and bore. A narrow blade is
used to measure the depth of bar slots etc. The reading accuracy in metric system is
0.02 mm and British system it is 0.001”. It is made of stainless steel.
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III. MARKING TOOLS:

1. Surface Plate

It is used for testing the flatness, trueness of the surfaces. It is made up of cast
iron or graphite. Its upper face is planed to form a very smooth surface. It is also used
in scribing work. While not in use, it should be covered with a wooden cover..

2. Angle Plate

on the angle It is made up of cast iron in different sizes; it has two planed
surfaces at right angles to each other and has various slots in each surface to hold the
work by means of bolts and clamps. Never do hammering plate to fasten (lighten) the
nuts and bolts.

3. Scriber and Surface Gauge

It consists of a cast iron bass on the centre of which a steel rod is fixed
vertically. Scriber is made up of high carbon steel and is hardened from the front edge.
It is used for locating the centres of round bars or for marking of the lines.
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4. Punches

Punches are used for marking purposes. Dot punches are used for marking dotted
line and centre punch is used to mark the centre of hole before drilling. Punches are
made up of high carbon steel or high speed steels. One end is sharpened. Hammering
is done on the second end while working For dot punch, angle of the punching end is 60
degree while in centre punch; angle of punching end is 90 degree.

5. Try Square-

It is used for checking squareness of two surfaces. It consists of a blade made up

of steel, which is attached to a base at 90 degree. The base is made up of cast iron or
steel. It is also used to mark the right angles and measuring straightness of surfaces.
Never use try square as a hammer.
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6. Vernier Height gauge:

A Vernier height gauge consists of a heavy base, a graduated beam, a sliding

head with Vernier sliding jaws holding the scriber and a fine adjustment clamp. It is
similar to large Vernier callipers in construction, except that it consists of a heavy base
which allows the gauge to stand upright instead of a fixed jaw in a Vernier. The movable
jaw of Vernier height gauge consists of a projection or extension which is levelled to
sharp edge for scribing lines at any required height.

METHOD OF MARKING

Marking means setting out dimensions with the help of a working drawing or
directly transferring them from a similar part. The procedure of marking is as follows:

1. The surface to be marked is coated with the paste of chalk or red lead and allowed
to dry.

2. Then the work is held In a holding device depending upon shape and size. If it is flat,
use surface plate, if it is round use V block and clamp, else use angle plate etc.
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3. Lines in horizontal direction are scribed by means of a surface gauge. Lines at right
angles can be drawn by turning the work through 90 degree and then using the scriber.
If true surface is available, try square can also be used.

4. The centre on the end of a round bar can be located by using an odd leg calliper,
surface gauge etc.

5. The circles and arcs on a flat surface are marked by means of a divider.

6. After the scribing work is over, indentations on the surface are made using dot
punch and hammer.

IV. CUTTING TOOLS

1. Hacksaw

Hacksaw is used for cutting of rods, bars, pipes, flats etc. It consists of a frame,
which is made from mild steel. The blade is placed inside the frame and is tightened with
the help of a flange nut. The blade is made up of high carbon steel or high speed steel.
The points of the teeth are bent in a zig-zag fashion, to cut a wide groove and prevent
the body of the blade from rubbing or jamming in the saw cut. The teeth of the blades
are generally forward cut so in the case, pressure is applied in the forward direction only.

Depending upon the direction of cut, blades are classified as:

1. Forward cut

2. Backward cut.

Depending upon the pitch of the teeth (Distance between the two consecutive teeth)
blades is classified as:

1. Coarse (8-14 teeth per Inch)

2. Medium (16-20 teeth per inch)

3. Fine (24-32 teeth per inch)

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2. Files

Files are multi points cutting tools. It is used to remove the material by rubbing it on the
metals. Files are available in a number of sizes, shapes and degree of coarseness.

Classification of files

i. On the basis of length

4”,6”,8”,12”

ii. On the basis of grade:

[Link] (R)(20 teeth per inch)

2. Bastard (B)(30 teeth per inch)

3. Second cut (Sc) (40 teeth per inch)

4. Smooth file (S)(50 teeth per inch)

5. Dead smooth (DS)(100 teeth per inch)

Rough and bastard files are the big cut files. When the material removal is more,
these files are used.

These files have bigger cut but the surface produced Is rough. Dead smooth and
smooth files have smaller teeth and used for finishing work. Second cut file has degree
of finish in between bastard and smooth file.

iii. On the basis of number of cuts:

1. Single cut files.

[Link] cut files.

3. Rasp files.

In single cut files the teeth are cut in parallel rows at an angle of 60 degree to the face.
Another row of teeth is added in opposite direction in case of double cut files. Material
removal is more in case of double cut files.

iii. On the basis of shape and size:

The length of the files varies from 4' to 14*. The various shapes of cross-section
available are hand file, flat file, triangular, round; square, half round, knife-edge, pillar,
needle and mill file.
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a. Flat file: This file has parallel edges for about two-thirds of the length and then it
tapers in width and thickness. The faces are double cut while the edges are single cut.

b. Hand file: for a hand file the width is constant throughout, but the thickness tapers
as given in flat file. Both faces are double cut and one edge is single cut. The
remaining edge is kept uncut in order to use for filing a right-angled corner on one side
only.

c. Square file: It has a square cross-section. It is parallel for two-thirds of its length and
then tapers towards the tip. It is double cut on all sides. It is used for filing square
corners and slots.

d. Triangular file: It has width either parallel throughout or up to middle and then
tapered towards the tip. Its section is triangular (equilateral) and the three faces are
double cut and the edges single cut. It is used for filing square shoulders or comers
and for sharpening wood working saws.

e. Round file: It has round cross-section. It carries single cut teeth all round its surface.
It is normally made tapered towards the tip and is frequently known as rat-tail file.
Parallel round files having same diameter throughout the length are also available. The
round files are used for opening out holes, producing round comers, round-ended slots
etc.

f. Half-round file: Its cross-section is not a true half circle but is only about one-third of
a circle. The width of the file is either parallel throughout or up to middle and then
tapered towards the tip. The flat side of this file is always a double cut and curved side
has single cut. It is used for filing curved surfaces.

g. Knife edge file: It has a width tapered like a knife blade and it is also tapered
towards the tip and thickness. It carries double cut teeth on the two broad faces and
single cut teeth on the edge. It is used for finishing sharp corners of grooves and slots

h. Diamond file: Its cross-section is like a diamond. It is used for special work.

i. Needle file: These are thin small files having a parallel tang and a thin, narrow and
pointed blade made in different shapes of its cross-section to suit the particular need of
the work. These are available in sizes from 100 mm to 200 mm of various shapes and
cuts. These files are used for filing very thin and delicate work.

Methods of filing -The following are the two commonly used methods of filing:

1. Cross-filing 2. Draw filing.

Cross - filing.

This method is used for efficient removal of maximum amount of metal in the shortest
possible time. It may be noted that the file must remain horizontal throughout the stroke
(long, slow and steady) with pressure only applied on the forward motion.
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Draw filing.

This method is used to remove file marks and for finishing operations. Here, the file is
gripped as close to the work as possible between two hands. In this filing method, a
fine cut file with a flat face should be used.

FILE CARD:

It is a device fashioned like a wire brush used to clean dirt and chips from the teeth of a
file. When particles of metal clog the teeth the file is said to the pinned, a condition that
causes scratching of the surface of the work. Files, therefore, require cleaning by
means of a file card or by dislodging the material between the teeth by means of a
piece of soft iron, copper, brass, tin plate and so on, sharpened at the end. Hardened
steel should never be used.
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JOB NO: 01 T-Shape DATE

AIM: To make a T-Shape from the given mild steel pieces.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: mild steel flat (40*40*5mm).

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1.6” try square

2. 6”scriber

3. Odd leg calliper

3.12”hack saw Frame

4 Blades (12 TPI)

5. 10”rough file

6. 10”smooth file

7. 10”Square file

8. Dot punch

9. Ball peen hammer (0.5 Ib).

10. Steel Rule

Sequence of Operations:

1. Filling

2. Marking

3. Punching

4. Sawing

5. Filling

6. Finishing
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PROCEDURE:

1. The given mild steel flat piece is checked for given dimensions.

2. Wet chalk is applied on one side of the flat and dried for marking.

3. Lines are marked according to given figure by the help of calliper and steel rule.

[Link] the workpiece from raw material after measuring and marking.

5. The excess materials removed from the workpiece by bastard file.

[Link] a T-shape workpiece after above process.

[Link] a good surface finishing by smooth file.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1. The perpendicular of face ends edges is checked perfectly by using try

square.

2. Finishing is given by using only with smooth files.

3. Marking is done without parallax error.

[Link] should be taken while marking, measuring and cutting.

RESULT: T-Shape is done successfully

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[Link]: 02 V-FITTING

AIM: To make a V-Fit from the given mid steel pieces.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Mild steel flat (40*40*3mm).

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:-

1.6”try square

2. 6”sriber

3. Odd leg calliper

3.12”hack saw Frame

4 Blades (12 TPI)

5.10”rough file

6.10”smooth file

7.10”triangle file

8. Knife Edge file

9. Dot punch

10. Ball peen hammer (0.5 Ib)

11. Steel Rule

Sequence of Operations:

1. Filling

2. Marking

3. Punching

4. Sawing

5. Filling

6. Finishing
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PROCEDURE:-

1. The given mild steel flat piece is checked for given dimensions.

2. One edge of given is filled with rough and smooth files and checked with try
square for straightness.

3. An adjacent edge is also filled such that it is square to first edge and checked
with try square.

4. Wet chalk is applied on one side of the flat and dried for marking.

5. Lines are marked according to given figure, using odd leg caliper and steel
rule.

6. Using the dot punch, punches are made along the marked lines.

7. The excess materials removed from the remaining two edges with try square
level up to half of the marked dots.

8. Finally buts are removed by the filling on the surface of the fitted job.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1. The perpendicular of face ends edges is checked perfectly by using try

square.

2. Finishing is given by using only with smooth files.

3. Marking is done without parallax error.

RESULT:-The V-fit is done successfully.

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BLACKSMITHY

Black smithy or Forging is an oldest shaping process used for the producing small
articles for which accuracy in size is not so important. The parts are shaped by
heating them in an open fire or hearth by the blacksmith and shaping them through
applying compressive forces using hammer.
Thus forging is defined as the plastic deformation of metals at elevated
temperatures into a predetermined size or shape using compressive forces exerted
through some means of hand hammers, small power hammers, die, press or
upsetting machine. It consists essentially of changing or altering the shape and
section of metal by hammering at a temperature of about 980°C, at which the
metal is entirely plastic and can be easily deformed or shaped under pressure. The
shop in which the various forging operations are carried out is known as the
smithy or smith’s shop.
Hand forging process is also known as black-smithy work which is commonly
employed for production of small articles using hammers on heated jobs. It is a
manual controlled process even though some machinery such as power hammers
can also be sometimes used. Black-smithy is, therefore, a process by which metal
may be heated and shaped to its requirements by the use of blacksmith tools either
by hand or power hammer.
Forging by machine involves the use of forging dies and is generally employed
for mass-production of accurate articles. In drop forging, closed impression dies
are used and there is drastic flow of metal in the dies due to repeated blow or
impact which compels the plastic metal to conform to the shape of the dies.

Applications of forging :
Almost all metals and alloys can be forged. The low and medium carbon steels
are readily hot forged without difficulty, but the high-carbon and alloy steels are
more difficult to forge and require greater care. Forging is generally carried out
on carbon alloy steels, wrought iron, copper-base alloys, aluminium alloys, and
magnesium alloys. Stainless steels, nickel-based super alloys, and titanium are
forged especially for aerospace uses.

FORGEABILITY:
The ease with which forging is done is called forgeability. The forgeability of a
material can also be defined as the capacity of a material to undergo deformation
under compression without rupture. Forgeability increases with temperature up
to a point at which a second phase, e.g., from ferrite to austenite in steel, appears
or if grain growth becomes excessive.
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COMMON HAND FORGING TOOLS -

For carrying out forging operations manually, certain common hand forging tools
are employed. These are also called blacksmith’s tools, for a blacksmith is one
who works on the forging of metals in their hot state. The main hand forging tools
are as under.

Tongs
The tongs are generally used for holding work while doing a forging operation.
Various kinds of tongs are shown in Figure.
a) Straight-lip fluted tongs are commonly used for holding square, circular and
hexagonal bar stock.
b) Rivet or ring tongs are widely used for holding bolts, rivets and other work of
circular section.
c) Flat tongs are used for mainly for holding work of rectangular section.
d) Gad tongs are used for holding general pick-up work, either straight or tapered.

Flatter
Flatter is shown in Figure. It is commonly used in forging shop to give
smoothness and accuracy to articles which have already been shaped by fullers
and swages

Fatter
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Swage is used for forging work which has to be reduced or finished to round,
square or hexagonal form. It is made with half grooves of dimensions to suit the
work being reduced. It consists of two parts, the top part having a handle and the
bottom part having a square shank which fits in the Hardie hole on the anvil face.
Fuller
Fuller is used in forging shop for necking down a forgeable job. It is made in top
and bottom tools as in the case of swages. Fuller is made in various shapes and
sizes according to needs, the size denoting the width of the fuller edge

Punch:-

Punch is used in forging shop for making holes in metal part when it is at forging
heat.
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Rivet header :-
Rivet header is used in forging shop for producing rivets heads on parts .

Chisels :-
Chisels are used for cutting metals and for nicking prior to breaking. They may
be hot or cold depending on whether the metal to be cut is hot or cold. A hot
chisel generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig. 14.7. The main difference
between the two is in the edge. The edge of a cold chisel is hardened and tempered
with an angle of about 60°, whilst the edge of a hot chisel is 30° and the hardening
is not necessary. The edge is made slightly rounded for better cutting action.

Hand hammers
There are two major kinds of hammers are used in hand forging:
a. The hand hammer used by the smith himself and
b. The sledge hammer used by the striker.

Hand hammers may further be classified as :-

(a) ball peen hammer, (b) straight peen hammer, and (c) cross peen hammer.

Sledge hammers may further be classified as :-

(a) Double face hammer, (b) straight peen hammer, and (c) cross peen
hammer.
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Hammer heads are made of cast steel and, their ends are hardened and
tempered. The striking face is made slightly convex. The weight of a hand
hammer varies from about 0.5 to 2 kg whereas the weight of a sledge
hammer varies from 4 to 10 kg

Set hammer
A set hammer generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig. It is used for
finishing corners in shouldered work where the flatter would be inconvenient. It
is also used for drawing out the gorging job.

Anvil
An anvil is a most commonly tool used in forging shop which is shown in. It acts
as a support for blacksmith’s work during hammering. The body of the anvil is
made of mild steel with a tool steel face welded on the body, but the beak or horn
used for bending curves is not steel faced. The round hole in the anvil called
23

pritchel hole is generally used for bending rods of small diameter, and as a die for
hot punching operations. The square or Hardie hole is used for holding square
shanks of various fittings. Anvils in forging shop may vary up to about 100 to
150 kg and they should always stand with the top face about 0.75 mt. from the
floor. This height may be attained by resting the anvil on a wooden or cast iron
base in the forging shop.

ANVIL

Swage block

Swage block generally used in forging shop is shown in figure. It is mainly used
for heading, bending, squaring, sizing, and forming operations on forging jobs. It
is 0.25 mt. or even more wide. It may be used either flat or edgewise in its stand.
24

FORGING OPERATIONS:
The following are the basic operations that may be performed by hand forging:

1. Drawing-down:
Drawing is the process of stretching the stock while reducing its cross-section
locally. Forging the tapered end of a cold is an example of drawing operation.

2. Upsetting:
It is a process of increasing the area of cross-section of a metal piece locally, with
a corresponding reduction in length. In this, only the portion to be upset is heated
to forging temperature and the work is then struck at the end with a hammer.
Hammering is done by the smith (student) himself, if the job is small, or by his
helper, in case of big jobs, when heavy blows are required with a sledge hammer.
3. Fullering:
Fullers are used for necking down a piece of work, the reduction often serving as
the starting point for drawing. Fullers are made of high carbon steel in two parts,
called the top and bottom fullers. The bottom tool fits in the Hardie hole of the
anvil. Fuller size denotes the width of the fuller edge.
4. Flattering:
Flatters are the tools that are made with a perfectly flat face of about 7.5 cm
square. These are used for finishing flat surfaces. A flatter of small size is known
as set-hammer and is used for finishing near corners and in confined spaces.

5. Swaging:
Swages like fullers are also made of high carbon steel and are made in two parts
called the top and swages. These are used to reduce and finish to round, square
or hexagonal forms. For this, the swages are made with half grooves of
dimensions to suit the work.
6. Bending:
Bending of bars, flats, etc., is done to produce different types of bent shapes such
as angles, ovals, circles etc. Sharp bends as well as round bends may be made on
the anvil, by choosing the appropriate place on it for the purpose.
7. Twisting:
It is also one form of bending. Sometimes, it is done to increase the rigidity of the
work piece. Small piece may be twisted by heating and clamping a pair of tongs
on each end of the section to be twisted and applying a turning moment.
Larger pieces may be clamped in a leg vice and twisted with a pair of tongs or a
monkey wrench. However, for uniform twist, it must be noted that the complete
twisting operation must be performed in one heating.
8. Cutting (Hot and Cold Chisels):
Chisels are used to cut metals, either in hot or cold state. The cold chisel is similar
to fitter’s chisel, except that it is longer and has a handle. A hot chisel is used for
25

cutting hot metal and its cutting edge is long and slender when compared to cold
chisel. These chisels are made of tool steel, hardened and tempered.

9. Iron-Carbon Alloy:
If the carbon is less than 2% in the iron-carbon alloy, it is known as steel. Again,
based on the carbon content, it is called mild steel, medium carbon steel and high
carbon steel.

The following are the purposes of heat treatment:

i. To remove internal stresses set-up during forging and cooling.
ii. To normalize the internal structure of the metal.
iii. To improve machinability.
iv. To improve mechanical properties, strength and hardness

SAFETY PRECAUTION:
1. Hold the hot work downwards close to the ground, while transferring from the
hearth to anvil, to minimize danger of burns; resulting from accidental collisions
with others.
2. Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work. These should hold the work
securely to prevent its bouncing out of control from repeated hammer blows.
3. Care should be exercised in the use of the hammer. The minimum force only
should be used and the flat face should strike squarely on the work; as the edge
of the hammer will produce heavy bruising on hot metal.
4. Water face shield when hammering hot metal.
5. Wear gloves when handling hot metal.
6. Wear steel-toed shoes.
7. Ensure that hammers are fitted with tight and wedged handles.
26

JOB NO.-01 DATE:-

NAME OF JOB: S-HOOK
Aim: To make an S-hook from a given round rod, by following hand forging operation.
Tools required:
Smith’s forge, Anvil, 500gm and I kg ball-peen hammers, Flatters, Swage block, Half round
tongs, Pick-up tongs, Cold chisel.

Sequence of operations:
1. One end of the bar is heated to red hot condition in the smith’s forge for the required length.
2. Using the pick-up tongs; the rod is taken from the forge, and holding it with the half round
tongs, the heated end is forged into a tapered pointed end.
3. The length of the rod requires for S-hook is estimated and the excess portion is cut-off, using
a cold chisel.
4. One half of the rod towards the pointed end is heated in the forge to red hot condition and
then bent into circular shape as shown.
5. The other end of the rod is then heated and forged into a tapered pointed end.
6. The straight portion of the rod is finally heated and bent into circular shape as required.
7. Using the flatter, the S-hook made as above, is kept on the anvil
and flattened so that, the shape of the hook is proper.

NOTE: In-between the above stage, the bar is heated in the smith’s forge, to facilitate forging
operations.
27

Result:
The S-hook is thus made from the given round rod; by following the stages mentioned above.

Precautions:
1. Hold the job carefully while heating and hammering
2. Job must be held parallel to the face of the anvil.
3. Wear steel-toed shoes.
4. Wear face shield when hammering the hot metal
5. Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work.
28

JOB NO:- 02 DATE:-

NAME OF JOB :- SQUARE ROD
Aim: To make a Square rod from a given round rod, by following hand forging operation.
Tools required:
Smith’s forge, Anvil, 500gm and I kg ball-peen hammers, Flatters, Swage block, Half round
tongs, Pick-up tongs, Cold chisel.

Sequence of operations:
1. Take the raw material from stock i.e., mild steel 10 mm round shaped, cut the length of 50
mm.
2. Handle specimen with round tong and heat in blacksmith’s forge up to the part appears as
red cherry colour code.
3. The required piece heated up to it gets the recrystallization temperature.
4. The part is taken out from the forge and blow with sledge hammer for obtaining the square
shape on all edges.
5. The hammering is done on the anvil.
6. The above mentioned all steps are done,
after the specimen bent in required shape.
7. Check the dimensions after cooling the job by quenching process.

NOTE: In-between the above stage, the bar is heated in the smith’s forge, to facilitate forging
operations.

Result:
The square rod is thus made from the given round rod.
Precautions:
1. Hold the job carefully while heating and hammering
2. Job must be held parallel to the face of the anvil.
3. Wear steel-toed shoes.
4. Wear face shield when hammering the hot metal
5. Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work
29

CARPENTARY
Carpentry is the process of shaping Timber, using hand tools. The products produced are used
in building construction, such as doors and windows, furniture manufacturing, patterns for
moulding in foundries, etc. Carpentry work mainly involves the joining together of wooden
pieces and finishing the surfaces after shaping them. Hence, the term joining is also used
commonly for carpentry. A student studying the fundamentals of wood working has to know
about timber and other carpentry materials, wood working tools, carpentry operations and the
method of making common types of joints.
Materials Used in Carpentry:
Basic materials used in carpentry shop are timber and plywood. Auxiliary materials used are
nails, screws, adhesives, paints, varnishes, etc.
Timber:
Timber is the name given to wood obtained from exogenous (outward growing) trees. In these
trees, the growth is outward from the centre, by adding almost concentric layers of fresh wood
every year known as annual rings. After the full growth, these trees are cut and sawed to convert
into rectangular sections of various sizes for engineering purposes.
Timber is available in market in various shapes and size. The common shapes and sizes are
given below:
1. Log: This is the trunk of die tree which is tree from branches.
2. Balk: This is the log after sawing roughly to square cross section.
3. Deal: This is the log after sawing into rectangular cross section of width about 225 mm and
thickness up to 100 mm.
4. Plank: This is the timber piece having width more than 275 mm and thickness 50 lo 150
mm.
5. Board: This is the timber piece below 50 mm in thickness and above 125 mm in width,
6. Batten: This is the timber piece below 175 mm in width and thickness between 30 mm to
50 mm in thickness.
7. Scantlings: These are timber pieces of various assorted and nonstandard sizes other than the
types given above.

Classification of Wood
The timber used for commercial purposes can he divided into two classes as soft wood and
hard wood
Soft wood
A soft wood is light in weight and light coloured. They may have distinct annual rings but the
medullar rays (radial lines) are not visible and the colour of the sap wood (outer layers) is not
distinctive from the heart wood (inner layers). These woods cannot resist stresses developed
across their fibres; hence, not suitable for wood working.

Hard wood
In this type of wood the annual rings are compact and thin and the medullar rays (radial lines}
are Visible in most cases Figure6.1. Hard woods are nearly equally strong both along and across
the fibres. Hand wood is the material used for wood working

Classification of timber
According to the manner of growth of trees, timber can be classified as
30

i) Exogenous or out ward growing

ii) Endogenous or in ward growing

i) Exogenous or out ward growing :-

In exogenous trees the growth take place from the centre by the addition of concentric layers
of fresh wood every year, known as annual rings. These varieties of trees are suitable for
building and other engineering uses the exogenous trees are again classified as
a) Conifers or ever green trees
b) Deciduous or broad leaf trees

The conifer give soft woods and the deciduous gives hard wood common example of hard
wood are Sal, teak, rose wood, sandal, shisham, oak beach, ash ebony, mango, neem, babool,
etc., soft wood include kail pine, deodar chair, walnut seemal etc.

ii) Endogenous or in ward growing timber

These trees grow in wards i.e. .every fresh layer of sap wood is added inside instead of outside
cane, bamboo, coconut
Seasoning
Seasoning of wood carried out for removing the sap and reducing the moisture content the
presence of sap and moisture will render the wood unsuitable for engineering works due to
uneven shrinkage, crack, wrapping and decay.
Different methods of seasoning
1. Air seasoning or Natural seasoning
2. Water seasoning
3. Electrical seasoning
4. Kiln seasoning

Ply wood
Thick sheet formed by pasting veneers of wood is called ply. Three or more ply’s joined by
glues is called plywood. The grains of adjacent layers are kept at right angle to each other in
order to get better strengthening both directions the outer layer are called facing ply’s and good
hard wood veneers are used for this inner ones are called core ply’s and low quality wood is
used for this the ply wood is made by either cold pressing or hot pressing.
Tools for wood working
31

The principle hand tools used in a carpentry workshop can be classified into
i) Marking and measuring tool
ii) Cutting tool
iii) Planning tool
iv) Boring tool
v) Striking tool
vi) Holding tool

Marking and measuring tool :-

a) Rules
Rules are used for measuring dimensions. For measuring and setting out dimensions various
types of rules are used in carpentry shop. Steel Rule- Stainless Steel Rule of length 30cm and
60cm. Flexible Measuring Rule- for measuring large dimensions as well as curved or angular
surface dimensions.

b) Straight Edge and Squares

This is a machined flat piece wood or metal having perfectly straight and parallel edges.

c) Steel Tape: It is used for large dimensions, such as marking on boards and checking the
overall dimensions of the work.

e) Gauges

Gauges are used to mark lines parallel to the edges of a wooden piece. It mainly
consists of a wooden stem sliding inside a wooden stock. The stem carries a steel
point for marking lines. The stock position on the stem can be varied and fixed
rigidly by tightening the thumb screw.

WOODEN SCALE
32

STEEL TAPE

MARKING GAUGE
To mark a line parallel to an edge the gauge stock is held freely against the edge
and pushed along it, pressing the steel points to the surface.

MORTISE GAUGE
c) Try square
Try square consists of rectangular steel blade fixed rigidly to cast iron stock. The
length of blade varies from 150mm to 300mm.
33

d)Marking Knife or Scriber

Marking Knives are used to convert the pencil lines drawn on the wooden surface
into deep scratch lines on the surface. They are made of steel with a sharp point
at one end and flat blade at the other end.

MARKING KNIFE

Bevel Square:

it is also called sliding level. It is an adjustable try-square used for

measuring/marking angles between 00 and 1800.
34

BEVEL SQUARE

Holding tools :-
Work Bench

This is a table of having size and raised construction made of hard wood. The size
ranges from 50- 80 cm in length and about 90cm in width. Two or four carpenters
can work at a time on the work bench.

Carpenters Bench Vice

It consists of jaw fixed on the table side and movable jaw kept in position by
means of screw and handle. The body of vice is made of cast iron or steel. The
jaws are lined with hard wood which can be removed when it is damaged.
The screw moves inside the fixed half nut which can be engaged or disengaged
by operating the lever. This is made up of a bar of steel. The work is clamped
between jaws by rotating the screw using the handle. It is used for clamping glued
pieces or holding the work piece of larger size together for various operations.

WORK BENCH
35

C-Clamp:
The clamp of the shape of letter C or G is used to clamp short pieces together as
the bar clamp. These clamps are available is sizes varying from 70 mm to 800
mm. it is used for holding the planks after gluing

CARPENTER’S BENCH VICE C-CLAMP

Bar or T-cramp:

it consists of a steel bar fitted with a threaded spindle and an adjustable shoe. It
is used for holding the glued pieces tightly or holding firmly two or more unglued
pieces for fitting dowels or doing other operations on them in assembled position
36

BAR OR I-CLAMP
Bar or T-cramp:

it consists of a steel bar fitted with a threaded spindle and an adjustable shoe. It
is used for holding the glued pieces tightly or holding firmly two or more unglued
pieces for fitting dowels or doing other operations on them in assembled position

Cutting tools
a) Saws
Saw is a cutting tool which has teeth on one edge and cutting is affected by
reciprocating motion of the edge relative to the work piece. Cutting occurs during
the forward motion; such a saw is called push type saw, the cutting occurs during
the backward motion.
i. Hand Saw- This saw is used for short straight cuts. It has a blade of 25-40cm
length 6- 10cm width. The number of teeth per cm length ranges from 3-5.
ii. Tenon Saw (Back Saw)- It has a parallel blade of 25-40cm length and 6-10cm
width. The number of teeth per cm length ranges from 5-8.
b) Chisels

The common type of chisels used is briefly explained below.

i. Firmer Chisels- they are most common and general purpose chisel used by a
carpenter. They have flat blade of 15-50mm width and 125mm length.
ii. Dovetail- Chisel (bevelled edge firmer chisel) - These chisels are used for fine
and delicate works as well as for cutting corners.
iii. Mortise chisel – These chisels are used for heavy and deep cut to remove
large quantity of wood. These chisels have width of about 15mm but the blade
thickness may range from 6- 15mm.
37
38

CHIESEL
planer
39

Planning Tools:- Planning tool is used to smoothen the wooden surfaces.

Wooden jack plane

This is the most commonly used plane in carpentry shop. The main part of a
wooden jack plane is a wooden block called sole, in which steel blade having
knife edge is fixed at an angle with the help of wooden edge. The angle of the
blade is kept about 45 ° to bottom surface of the blade.

b) Metal Jack Plane

It serves the same purpose as the wooden jack plane but facilitates a smoother
operations and better finish. The body of a metal jack plane is made from a grey
iron casting with the side and sole machined and ground to better finish.

IRON JACK PLANE

DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS:

a) Bradawl: It is a hand operated tool, used to bore
small holes for starting a screw or large nail.

b) Carpenters brace: it is used for rotating auger bits, twist drills, etc., to produce
holes in wood. In some designs, braces are made with ratchet device.
c) Auger bit: it is the most common tool used for making holes in wood. During
drilling, the lead screw of the bit guides into the wood, necessitating only
moderate pressure on the brace. The helical flutes on the surface carry the chips
to the outer surface.
d) Hand drill: carpenter’s brace is used to make relatively large size holes;
whereas hand drill is used for drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used
40

with this tool. It is small, light in weight and may be conveniently used than the
brace. The drill bit is clamped in the chuck at its end and is rotated by a handle
attached to gear and pinion arrangement.
e) Gimlet: it has cutting edges like a twist drill. It is used for drilling.

WOODEN JACK PLANE

GIMLET DRILL

a) Mallet
This is wooden headed hammer of round or rectangular cross section. The striking
face is made flat. Mallet is used for striking the cutting tools and has wooden
handle.
b) Claw Hammer

This is a hammer having steel head and wooden handle. The flat face of the head
is used to drive nails and claw portion for extracting nails out of the wood.
41
42

HAND DRILL PINCER

c) Pincer: it is made of two forged steel arms with a hinged joint and is used for
pulling-out small nails from wood. The inner faces of the pincer jaws are bevelled
and the outer faces are plain. The end of one arm has a ball and the other has a
claw. The bevelled jaws and the claw are used for pulling out small nails, pins
and screws from the wood.

d) Screw Driver: it is used for driving wood screws into wood or unscrewing
them. The length of a screw driver is determined by the length of the blade. As
the length of the blade increases, the width and thickness of the tip also increase.

SCREW DRIVER

WOODEN RASP FILE

Wood rasp files: it is a finishing tool used to make the wood surface smooth,
remove sharp edges, and finish fillets and other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting
teeth are provided on its surface for the purpose. This file is exclusively used in
wood work.
43

JOB NO:- 01 DATE:-

NAME OF JOB :- DOVETAIL LAP JOINT

AIM: To make a dovetail lap joint.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Teak wood (30mm*150mm*50mm)

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED:

1. Steel rule
2. Try square
3. Marking gauge
4. Rip saw
5. Tenon saw
6. Mortise chisel
7. Mallet
8. Jack plane
9. Wood rasp file

OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:

1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Sawing
4. Chiselling
5. Finishing

PROCEDURE:
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack plane and for straightness.
3. An adjacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 40-50 mm to make the thickness
and width according to given figure.
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces
7. The excess material in X is chiselled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiselled to suit X
9. The end of both the pieces is chiselled to exact lengths.
44

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Wood should be free from moisture
2. Marking is done without parallax error
3. Care should be taken while chiselling
4. Matching of X and Y pieces should be tight.

RESULT:
The dovetail lap joint is made successfully.
45

Job NO:- 02 DATE:-

NAME OF JOB :- CROSS HALF LAP JOINT
AIM: To make a cross half lap joint.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Teak wood (30mm*150mm*50mm)

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED:

1. Steel rule
2. Try square
3. Marking gauge
4. Rip saw
5. Tenon saw
6. Mortise chisel
7. Mallet
8. Jack plane
9. Wood rasp file
OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:
1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Sawing
4. Chiselling
5. Finishing
PROCEDURE:
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack planned for straightness.
3. An adjacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 40-50 mm to make the thickness
and width according to given figure
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces
7. The excess material in X is chiselled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiselled to suit X
9. The end of both the pieces is chiselled to exact lengths.
46

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reaper should be free from moisture
2. Marking is done without parallax error
3. Care should be taken while chiselling
4. Matching of x and y pieces should be tight.

RESULT: The cross half lap joint is made success fully.

47

Job NO:- 03 DATE:-

NAME OF JOB :- HALF OVER LAP T-JOINT
AIM: To make a half over lap T- joint.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Teak wood (30mm*150mm*50mm)

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED:

1. Steel rule
2. Try square
3. Marking gauge
4. Rip saw
5. Tenon saw
6. Mortise chisel
7. Mallet
8. Jack plane
9. Wood rasp file
OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:
1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Sawing
4. Chiselling
5. Finishing
PROCEDURE:
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack planned for straightness.
3. An adjacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 50 mm to make the thickness and
width according to given figure
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces
7. The excess material in X is chiselled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiselled to suit X
9. The end of both the pieces is chiselled to exact lengths.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reaper should be free from moisture
2. Marking is done without parallax error
3. Care should be taken while chiselling
4. Matching of x and y pieces should be tight.
48

HALF OVER LAP T-JOINT

RESULT: The cross half lap joint is made success fully

49

WELDING SHOP
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It
joins different metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with
or without the use of filler metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of
heat. The heat may be generated either from combustion of gases, electric arc,
electric resistance or by chemical reaction.
Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the
components. It is therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for
most of the critical components. The welding is widely used as a fabrication and
repairing process in industries. Some of the typical applications of welding
include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore
platform, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.
50

Most of the metals and alloys can be welded by one type of welding process or
the other. However, some are easier to weld than others. To compare this ease in
welding term ‘weldability’ is often used. The weldability may be defined as
property of a metal which indicates the ease with which it can be welded with
other similar or dissimilar metals.
Elements of welding process used with common welding joints such as base
metal, fusion zone, weld face, root face, root opening toe and root are depicted in
Figure.

Edge preparations
For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different
edge preparations may be used for welding butt joints, which are given in Figure.
Welding joints
Some common welding joints are shown in Figure. Welding joints are of
generally of two major kinds namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are
described as under.

1. Lap weld joint

Single-Lap Joint
This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is not recommended for
most work. The single lap has very little resistance to bending. It can be used
satisfactorily for joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.
Double-Lap Joint
This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the disadvantage that it requires
twice as much welding.
Tee Fillet Weld
51

This type of joint, although widely used, should not be employed if an alternative
design is possible.

2. Butt weld joint

a. Single-Vee Butt Weld

It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends upon the
technique being used, the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.
b. Double-Vee Butt Weld

It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be performed on both
sides of the plate. The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom angle
is 80°, depending on the technique being used.
Welding Positions
As shown in Fig. 17.4, there are four types of welding positions, which are given
as:
a. Flat or down hand position
b. Horizontal position
c. Vertical position
d. Overhead position

Flat or Down-hand Welding Position

The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is performed
from the upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is approximately
horizontal.
Horizontal Welding Position
In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the deposited
weld head is horizontal. This position of welding is most commonly used in
welding vessels and reservoirs.
Vertical Welding Position
In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is
deposited upon a vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in
this position due to the effect of the force of gravity on the molten metal.
Overhead Welding Position

The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical
position. Here the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater
52

ARC WELDING PROCESSES

The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work-piece or
between two electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding
process. The basic principle of arc welding is shown in Figure1. However the
basic elements involved in arc welding process are shown in Figure2. Most of
these processes use some shielding gas while others employ coatings or fluxes to
prevent the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.

1) Switch box.
2) Secondary terminals
3) Welding machine.
4) Current reading scale.
5) Current regulating hand wheel.
6) Leather apron.
7) Asbestos hand gloves.
8) Protective glasses strap
9) Electrode holder.
10) Hand shield
11) Channel for cable protection.
12) Welding cable.
13) Chipping hammer.
14) Wire brush.
15) Earth clamp.
16) Welding table (metallic).
17) Job.
53

THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF ARC WELDING

54

THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING

Arc Welding Equipment
Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in
Figure. However some common tools of arc welding are shown separately
through Figure. Few of the important components of arc welding setup are
described as under.
1. Arc welding power source
Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc
welding, each having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually
obtained from generators driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available
by internal combustion engines. For AC welding supply, transformers are
predominantly used for almost all Arc-welding where mains electricity supply is
available. They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the
normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts). The following factors
influence the selection of a power source:
a. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded
b. Available power source (AC or DC)
c. Required output
d. Duty cycle
e. Efficiency
f. Initial costs and running costs
g. Available floor space
h. Versatility of equipment

2. Welding cables

Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source
through the electrode holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding
power source. These are insulated copper or aluminium cables.

3. Electrode holder
Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting
current to it. These are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn
matched to the amperage output of the arc welder. Electrode holders are available
in sizes that range from 150 to 500 Amps.
Fig. Electrode Holder
4. Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without
coatings. An arc is set up between electrode and workpiece. Welding electrodes
are classified into following types-
55

(i) Consumable Electrodes

Fig. Parts of a electrode
(a) Bare Electrodes
(b) Coated Electrodes
(ii)Non consumable
Electrodes
(a) Carbon or Graphite
Electrodes
(b) Tungsten Electrodes

Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this
electrode starts melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece.
Thus consumable electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of
a metal or alloy wire without any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have
flux coating which starts melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This coating
on melting performs many functions like prevention of joint from atmospheric
contamination, arc stabilizers etc.
Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like
carbon, pure tungsten or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away
during welding. But practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing with the
passage of time, because of oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material
during welding. The materials of non-consumable electrodes are usually copper
coated carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated or zirconated tungsten.
5. Hand Screen
Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.
56

6. Chipping hammer
Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.
7. Wire brush
Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

ELECTRODE HOLDER

PARTS OF AN ELECTRODE
8. Protective clothing

Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the exposure
of direct heat to the body.

Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding

The beginner in the field of arc welding must go through and become familiar
with these general safety recommendations which are given as under.
1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipe
lines containing gases or inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical
conductors shall not be used for a ground return circuit All earth connections shall
be mechanically strong and electrically adequate for the required current.
2. Welding arc in addition to being very is a source of infra-red and ultra-violet
light also; consequently, the operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield
fitted with a special filter glass to protect eyes
3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of
the welder
4. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused
by sparks and flying globules of molten metal with the help of the following:
57

5. Gloves protect the hands of a welder.

6. Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder’s clothes and his
trunk and thighs while seated he is doing welding.
7. For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required
8. Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.
9. Leather jackets and 1ather leggings are also available as clothes for body
protection.

10. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe

working order at all times.
11. Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.
12. All parts of welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the
usual service conditions.

Earth clamp

CHIPPING HAMMER

WIRE BRUSH
58

JOB NO:-01
NAME OF JOB- L- JOINT
Aim: To make a L- joint using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding.
Material Required:
Mild steel flat of size 80X20X5 mm – 01Pc
Mild steel flat of size 60X20X5 mm – 01Pc
Welding Electrodes: M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm
Welding Equipment: Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V 3 phase supply, amps up to 350
Tools and Accessories required:
1. Rough and smooth files.
2. Arc welding machine (transformer type)
3. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder
4. Ground clamp
5. Tongs
6. Face shield
7. Apron
8. Chipping hammer.

Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square levelling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, they are separated
slightly for better penetration of the weld.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is set to
be a proper value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and holding the
two pieces together; first run of the weld is done to fill the root gap.
59

6. Second run of the weld is done with proper weaving and with uniform
movement. During the process of welding, the electrode is kept at 150 to 250
from vertical and in the direction of welding.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any extract material around the weld.

SAFETY PRECAUTION-

[Link] hand gloves and goggle during welding process.

[Link] the comfortable dress and shoe.

RESULT-
Successfully T-joint made.
60

JOB NO:-02
NAME OF JOB- BUTT JOINT
Aim: To make a Butt joint using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding.
Material Required:
Mild steel plate of size 100X50X5 mm – 2 No’s
Welding Electrodes: M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm
Welding Equipment: Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V 3 phase supply, amps up to 350
Tools and Accessories required:
1. Rough and smooth files.
2. Protractor
3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder
5. Ground clamp
6. Tongs
7. Face shield
8. Apron
9. Chipping hammer.

Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square levelling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. One edge of each piece is believed, to an angle of 300, leaving nearly ¼ th of
the flat thickness, at one end.
3. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, they are separated
slightly for better penetration of the weld.
4. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to
be a proper value.
5. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
6. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and holding the
two pieces together; first run of the weld is done to fill the root gap.
61

7. Second run of the weld is done with proper weaving and with uniform
movement. During the process of welding, the electrode is kept at 150 to 250
from vertical and in the direction of welding.
8. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
9. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

Result:
The single V-butt joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned
above.
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EXPERIMENT NO:-03 DATE:-

EXPERIMENT NAME:- LAP JOINT

Aim: To make a Lap joint, using the given two M.S pieces and by arc welding.
Material Supplied:
Mild steel plate of size 100X50X5 mm – 2 No’s
Welding Electrodes: M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm
Welding Equipment: Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V,3-ɸ supply, Current up to 350Amps
Tools and Accessories required:
1. Rough and smooth files.
2. Protractor
3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder
5. Ground clamp
6. Tongs
7. Face shield
8. Apron
9. Chipping hammer.

Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square levelling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces
overlapped one over the other as shown in drawing.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to
be a proper value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work
pieces are tack-welded at both the ends and at the centre of the joint.
63

6. The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are
required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

DRAWING:

Result:
The Lap joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned.
64

SHEET METAL SHOP

1. INTRODUCTION
Sheet metal work has its own significance in the engineering work. Many
products, which fulfil the household needs, decoration work and various
engineering articles, are produced from sheet metals. Common examples of sheet
metal work are hoofers, canisters, guards, covers, pipes, hoods, funnels, bends,
boxes etc. Such articles are found less expensive, lighter in weight and in some
cases sheet metal products replace the use of castings or forgings.

2. METALS USED IN SHEET METAL WORK:

A metal plate of thickness less than 4 mm is considered as sheet. The size of the
sheet is specified by its length, width and thickness in mm. In British system, the
thickness of sheet is specified by a number called Standard Wire Gauge (SWG).

The following metals are generally used in sheet metal work:

i. Black Iron Sheet

It is the cheapest among ail. It has a bluish-black appearance and is uncoated

sheet. Being uncoated, it corrodes rapidly. It is prepared by rolling to the desired
thickness, then annealed by pleasing in a furnace and then set aside to cool
gradually. The use of this metal is limited to articles that are to be painted or
enamelled such as stovepipes, tanks, pans etc.
ii. Galvanized Iron

It is soft steel coated with molten zinc. This coating resist rust, improves
appearances, improves solderability, and improves water resistance. It is
popularly known as G.I. sheets. Articles such as pans, buckets, furnaces, cabinet
etc. are made from G.l. sheets.
iii. Stainless Steel

It is an alloy of steel with nickel, chromium and traces of other metals. It has good
corrosive resistance. The cost of stainless steel is very high but tougher than Gl
sheets. It is used in kitchenware, food handling equipment, chemical plants etc.
iv. Copper

It is a reddish coloured metal and is extremely malleable and ductile. Copper

sheets have good corrosion resistance as well as good appearances but costs are
high as compared to G.l. and stainless steel. Because of high thermal
conductivity, it is used for the radiator of automobiles, domestic heating
appliances etc.
v. Aluminium
65

Aluminium cannot be used in its pure form, but is used in alloy form. Common
additions are copper, silicon, manganese and iron. It has many qualities like high
ratio of strength to weight, corrosion resistant qualities, and ease in fabrication
and whitish in colour. It is used in manufacturing of a number of products such
as refrigerator trays, household appliances, lighting fixtures, window work,
construction of airplanes and in many electrical and transportation industries.
vi. Tin Plates

It is an iron sheet coated with the tin to protect it against rust. This metal has a
very bright silvery appearance and is used principally in making food containers,
cans and pans.
vii. Lead

It is a very soft, malleable, low melting point and possesses high resistance to
acid corrosion. It is having low mechanical strength so it is used to provide lining
to the highly corrosive acid tanks. It is also used in radiation shielding.

3. HAND TOOLS:
For measuring, marking cutting and forming, various types of hand tools are used
in sheet metal work. A list of them is given below:
I. Measuring tools
II. Marking tools
III. Cutting tools
IV. Forming tools
V. Joining tools

I. MEASURING TOOLS
The following types of tools are commonly used in sheet metal shops to measure
the dimensions of work pieces:
1. Steel rule
2. Vernier calliper
3. Micrometre
4. Sheet Metal gauge
The above tools are already explained in the fitting section.

SHEET METAL GAUGE

It is a disc shaped piece of metal, having a number of slots on the outside edge as
shown in figure. The slots are of various widths and each corresponds to a certain
standard wire gauge (SWG) number. The gauge is placed over the edge of the
sheet to be measured and a slot is found that will slip over the metal with a light
66

fit pressure. Standard tables are referred to for conversion of SWG numbers to
mm sizes.

STANDARD WIRE GAUGE

SCRIBER

II. MARKING TOOLS:

1. Scriber: It is used to scribe or mark line on a metal surface for a variety of
purposes. It is a metalworker's pencil
2. Trammel: These are used for drawing large circles and arcs that are beyond
the limit of dividers. It has two straight, removable legs tapered to a needle point
mounted on separate holders which slide on steel (or wooden) bar and held in
position by thumb screws.
3. Punches: It is used in sheet metal work for marking on sheet, locating centres.
There are two types of punches. a) Dot punch and b) Prick punch.
These are already explained in fitting section in detail.

TRAMMEL POINTS

III CUTTING TOOLS:

To cut the sheet metal as per the pattern drawn and to make holes for rivets etc.,
the following types of tools are used.
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A snip is a hand shear used to cut thin sheets of gauge size number 20 or above.
It works like ordinary scissors. There are several types and sizes of snips available
to cut along straight lines or curved lines. Figure (a) shows a straight snip having
straight blades to cut along straight lines. Figure (b) shows a bent

snip having curved blades to cut along curved lines. These snips are used for
cutting thin sheets. The heavier types are known as bench shear and block shear.

MECHANICAL SHEARING PRESS

IV. FORMING TOOLS:
Shaping of the sheet metal such as folding, bending, curling, etc., are done by
using the following types of forming tools.
1. Stakes:
Stakes are the sheet metal anvils used for bending, seaming and forming by using
a hammer or mallet. They work as the supporting tool as well as the forming tools.
They are made in different sizes and shapes depending upon the job requirement.
Commonly used stakes are
68

Stake Holder
The stake holder used in sheet metal shop is a rectangular bench plate as shown
in Figure.

STAKE HOLDER

2. HAMMERS:
The sheet metal is shaped by hammering or striking with mallet, after keeping the
work on suitable form of stake. The hammers used for sheet metal work are

(a) Setting hammer for setting down the edge while making double seam,

(b) Raising hammer for forming curved or hollow shape from flat piece, and

(c) Riveting hammer for riveting purpose. Mallets are soft hammers used to give
soft blows which will not damage the sheet at the same time will shape them. The
commonly used types of hammers and mallets are shown in Figure.
69

IV JOINING TOOLS:
The tools exclusively used for making and finishing joints are:
a) Hand grooves b) Rivet set c) Soldering irons
Hand groovers: Hand groovers are used to flatten and shape joints made in sheet
metal. The tool has a groove of required width and depth like a die. This groover
is placed over the joint (double hem or lock seam) and hammered from the top of
it, to shape the joint that of the groove as shown figure.
RIVET SET:
Rivet get is made of tool steel. At the bottom of the rivet set there is a deep hole
and a cup-shaped hole. The deep hole is used to draw a rivet through sheet metal
and cup shaped hole is used to form the finished head of the rivet- Another hole
on the aide of the set is to release the burrs that are punched. Dollies are used to
backup rivets, when it is not possible to support the job on a bench.
SOLDERING IRON:
A soldering iron consists of a copper block, fixed on an iron rod with a wooden
handle. It is made in various shapes and sizes to suit the use as shown in figure.
The purpose of the copper block is to act as a

heat source for melting and spreading the solder (filler metal) at the joining area.
The soldering iron (copper) is heated using furnace, blower or by electrical
resistance.

RIVET SET

RIVET SET AND DOLLY

70

SOLDERING IRON

SHEET METAL JOINTS:

The line of joint on a sheet me ml pieces is called seam. The most common types
of seams are as follows:
1. Lap seam: This is the simplest seam used in sheet metal work (Figure (a)).
This consists of one edge lapping over the other and joint is made by soldering or
riveting.
2. Grooved seam: A grooved seam is made by hooking two-folded edges
together and then off setting them as shown in Figure 5.8(b). This joint is self-
locking and stronger to some extent than lap seam.
3. Single seam: This seam is used to join a bottom portion to a vertical body as
shown in Figure (c). The bottom edge is hooked over the bent edge of the vertical
body. This method of joint can be used for square, rectangular or round
containers.
4. Double seam: This seam is similar lo single scam with the difference that the
formed edge is bent upwards against the body as shown in Figure (d).
5. Dove-tail seam: This seam is used to connect a cylindrical piece to a flat as
shown in Figure (e). The edge of the cylindrical part to be joined is slit at short
distance and is bent so that alternate pieces come inside and outside of the joint.
Permanent joint is obtained by soldering or riveting.

6. Flanged (burred) bottom seam: This seam is used to fasten the bottom of a
container to its body. The flange of a cylindrical job is often called a burr. The
joint consists of a narrow flange which may be joined to inside or outside of the
vessel as shown in figure (f).
71

Edge Forming
For sheet metal objects strength is given to the edge and the sharpness is
eliminated by folding the edge. The common types of folding used in sheet metal
work are as follows:
1. Single hem 2. Double hem 3. Wired edge
Figure shows the three types of edge folding. A wired edge consists of an edge
wrapped around a steel wire for better strength
72

JOB NO.:-01

NAME OF THE JOB:- RECTANGULAR TRAY

AIM : To make a rectangular Tray as per required dimensions.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Galvanized Iron sheet (150*110*26 gauge)

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1. Steel rule
2. Flat file
3. Scriber
4. Try square
5. Snips
6. Dot punch
7. Stakes
8. Mallet

OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:

1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Cutting
4. Bending
5. Seaming
6. Soldering

PROCEDURE:
1. The size of the given sheet is checked with steel rule.
2. Mark the measurement and make the development surface sketch diagram.
3. The layout of the tray is marked on given sheet.
4. The layout of the tray is cut by using the straight snips.
5. The sheet is bent to the required shape using stakes and mallet.
6. Now the bent edges are made to overlap each other and stuck with a mallet to
get the required joint.
7. The joint is soldered.
73

1. Care should be taken while cutting with snip.

2. Care should be taken while bending and jumping.

RESULT:
The rectangular tray is done success fully made.
74

JOB NO.:-02 DATE:-

NAME OF THE JOB:- ROUND PIPE

AIM: To make a cylindrical pipe as per required dimensions.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Galvanized Iron sheet (100*38*26 gauge)

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1. Steel rule
2. Flat file
3. Scriber
4. Try square
5. Snips
6. Dot punch
7. Stakes
8. Mallet
OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:
1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Cutting
4. Bending
5. Seaming
6. Soldering

PROCEDURE:
1. The size of the given sheet is checked with steel rule.
2. Mark the measurement and make the development surface sketch diagram.
3. The layout of the cylindrical shape pipe is marked on the given sheet.
4. The sheet is bent to the required shape using stakes and mallet.
5. Now the edges are slightly bent to one is one side and the other is opposite side,
using stakes and mallet.
6. Join both the ends with in a cylindrical shape.
75

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Care must be taken while cutting snips.
2. Care must be taken while bending and joining.

RESULT:
The cylindrical shape is made successfully.
76

PLUMBING
Plumbing is a skilled trade of working with pipes or tubes and plumbing fixtures.
The process is mainly used for the supply of drinking water and the drainage of
waste water, sometimes mixed with waste floating materials in a living or
working place. A plumber is someone who installs or repairs piping systems,
plumbing fixtures and equipment such as valves, washbasins, water heaters, water
closets, etc. Thus it usually refers to a system of pipes and fixtures installed in a
building for the distribution of water and the removal of waterborne wastes.
The Latin word plumb, means metal lead pipe, is the origin for developing the
term plumbing. Plumbing process was originated during the ancient civilizations
such as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian and Chinese civilizations as they
developed public baths and needed to provide potable water, and drainage of
wastes carried by water.
PIPES AND THEIR JOINTS:
Pipes are manufactured by using different types of materials like steel, cast iron,
galvanized iron, brass, copper, aluminium, lead, plastic, concrete, asbestos, etc.
They are usually classified according to the material. They are also grouped as
cast, welded, seamless, extruded, etc. For conveying large quantity of water, cast
iron, steel or concrete pipes having large diameter are usually used. Galvanized
iron pipes (GI pipes) are popular for medium and low pressure water supply lines.
Plastic pipes are preferred for household uses at low pressure. Pipes are generally
specified by their inner diameter (Nominal diameter specified in inches). Hence,
the pipe fitting size is also based on this dimension. But for plastic pipes, this rule
is not strictly followed because threading is not usually required for them. For
engineering uses, along with the nominal diameter, the pipe thickness is also
specified as light, medium or heavy.
Types of pipe joints:
According to the pipe material, size and application, different methods are used
to join pipes. The most common types of pipe joints are:
1. Screwed pipe joint – For GI Pipes
2. Welded pipe joint – for steel, copper, aluminium and lead pipes
3. Flanged pipe joint – for cast iron and steel pipes
4. Soldered pipe joint – for brass and copper tubes
5. Glued or cemented pipe joint – for PVC pipes

Pipes made of iron (GI Pipes) and brass of small and medium diameters (10 mm
to 100 mm) are usually joined by screwing the pipe specials with internal or
external threads. Welding is used to make permanent joint of medium and large
diameter steel pipes. Flanged pipe joints are common in medium and large
diameter pipes of cast iron and steel, along with rubber/CAF (Compressed
77

asbestos fibre) gaskets. The flanged are screwed to the pipe for smaller diameter
but made integral for large diameters. Pipes of copper and brass are usually joined
by soldering.

PVC (poly Vinyl Chloride) pipe is the most popular choice in plastic group. It is
rigid and uses thread and solvent weld (glue) connections. It also can be heat
fused. PVC pipes are available in various pressure ratings for water supply, and
is a very choice for landscape irrigation. The reasons for the popularity are the
economy, no corrosion and easiness to work. CPVC is a different type of plastic,
which has an extra chlorine atom in the compound, can be used for the hot water
supply, and in industry.
To join plastic pipes, gluing or cementing method is used. Solvent cement is the
gluing material and it partially melts the surface of the plastic pipe to make the
joint. As the glue evaporates within two minutes, a strong joint is obtained.

Screwed pipe fittings, (pipe specials) are removable or temporary pipe

connections which permit necessary dismantling or reassembly for the purpose
of installation, maintenance, cleaning, repair, etc. The functions of pipe fittings
can be broadly classified as:
1. To join two or more pipe lines together
2. To effect change in diameter or direction
3. To close the end of a pipe line

The most common types of screwed pipe fittings used in galvanized iron (GI)
pipe lines and plastic (PVC) pipe lines are shown in Figure 1 (I to 17). A brief
description of these fittings is given below
1. Coupler (coupling): Two pipe lines of equal diameter and in axial alignment
can be joined by a coupler (coupling). It is a short sleeve with internal thread.
2. Reducer coupler (Reducer coupling): This is a coupler to join two pipe lines
of different diameters in axial alignment.
3. 900 Elbow: This is a pipe special used or effecting abrupt change in direction
through 90°. Internal threads are provided on both ends. An elbow brings twice
the head loss than a bend.
4. 900 Reducer elbow: This is an elbow with outlet diameter less than that of
inlet diameter It is used to join two pipe lines having different diameters and
meeting at right angle.
[Link]: This is a pipe special used to effect gradual change in direction (usually
90°).The two ends of the bend are externally threaded.
6. Return hand: This bend is used to return the direction of pipe line through
180°.The ends are internally threaded for fitting the pipe lines.
78

1. Tee: This pipe special is used to make a branch connection of same diameter
to the main pipe line at right angle. A Tee is internally threaded and it connects
three ends of pipes.
8. Reducer Tee: This is a pipe special similar to Tee used to take a branch
connection of reduced diameter from the main pipe line.
9, Cross: This pipe special is used to take two branch connections at right angles
to the main pipe line. The threads are provided internally,
10. Close nipple: A nipple is a short straight piece of pipe with external thread
on both ends. A close nipple is the shortest one of this category with external
thread for the full length. They are used to join two internally threaded pipe
specials and valves.
11. Short nipple: A short nipple has the same shape and function of a close
nipple, but it has a short unthreaded portion at the middle of its length for
gripping.
12. Short nipple with hexagonal grip: This nipple has an additional hexagonal
nut shape at the middle portion for easy screwing with spanner. It is similar to an
ordinary short nipple, except that difference.
13. Hose nipple: A hose nipple is used to connect a hose (flexible pipe-usually
plastic or rubber) to a pipe line. One end of the hose-nipple has a stepped taper to
fit the hose, while other end has thread. A hexagonal nut shape is given to the
middle portion for gripping with a spanner.

14. Male plug: A male plug is used to close an internally threaded end of a pipe
line or pipe special. It has external thread and a grip of square shape at the end.
15. Female plug (cap): A female plug is used to close an externally thread end
of a pipe or pipe special. It has internal thread and a grip of square shape at the
end.
16. Screwed union: II consists of three pieces as shown in the drawing. The two
end pieces have internal threads at their ends which are connected to the pipe
ends. The central hexagonal (or octagonal) piece (union nut) has internal thread
at one end and a collar at the other end. After the end pieces are screwed on to the
pipes, the central piece (union nut) is tightened to draw the end pieces together to
get a water tight joint.
17. Flange: This is a disc type pipe special having threaded hole at the centre for
screwing to the externally threaded end of a pipe line. It will have holes around
the central hole at equal angular spacing (3, 4, 6f or 8 Nos.) for joining to another
similar flange or flat surface using bolt or stud. Example for the use of various
pipe fittings in pipe line is given in Figure:-
79
80

APPLICATIONS OF VARIOUS JOINTS IN THE PIPE

FITTING
Valves and Meters
Valves are used in piping systems to control or stop the flow of liquid or gas. The
most common types of valves used in low pressure water pipe line are:
1. Water tap
2. Water cock
3. Globe valve
4. Gate valve
5. Ball valve
6. Non-return valve
7. Foot valve
Water tap
81

To collect water from low pressure pipe line, water tap (screw-down valve) is
commonly used. Figure gives the cross section of the tap. Its leather or rubber
faced valve disc is lifted or lowered by rotating the spindle. Brass or gun-metal is
the material used for the valve body and the size is specified by the pipe to which
it is fitted, usually ranging from 10 mm to 25 mm.
Water cock
This is the simplest and smallest form of a valve in which a conical plug called
cock is inserted into a conical hole having a matching taper. A rectangular hole
is provided at the centre across the conical potion so that, in one position it permits
flow of water as shown in Figure. A half turn of the handle will bring the solid
portion of the cock to the water ways preventing the flow. Cocks are used for low
rate of water flow' or for tapping pressure line to a manometer etc.

Globe valve
Globe valves are used as control valves in fluid (gas and liquid) pipe lines. Figure
shows the simplest and smallest type of globe valve used in water pipe lines.
Basically, the valve is a variable opening flow device. The design of a globe valve
also creates a slight retardation to the flow because the fluid is forced to make a
double turn and passes through the opening at 90° to the axis of the pipe. The
valve plug is raised or lowered to stop or regulate the flow through a circular
opening. A globe valve can be identified by the spherical body and the arrow
mark for the direction of flow. These valves are used in water pipe lines from 12
mm to 100 mm or even larger diameter for the flow control purpose.

Gate valve: A gate valve is on-off type valve. It allows a straight-line movement
of fluid and offer very little resistance to the flow in fully opened position. The
central disc moves completely out of the passage and leaves a full opening. Figure
shows a simple type of gate valve partially opened in position. These valves are
very widely used in water pipe lines of diameter ranging from 12 mm to higher
values. A gate valve can be identified by its slim body. It is to be noted that there
will be no arrow mark or the body of valve because it can be used in both ways
Foot valve: Foot valve is a kind of non-return valve used in centrifugal pumps.
It is fitted at the bottom most end of the suction pipe (Foot) to stop flow in the
downward direction for priming purpose. The strainer restricts the entry of
floating materials to the pipe line. Figure gives the details of the foot valve. The
material used may be cast iron, brass, or PVC.
82
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85

POWER TOOLS
INTRODUCTION:
Power tool is a powered by an electric motor, a compressed air motor, or a
gasoline engine. Power tools are classified as either stationary or portable, where
portable means handheld. They are used in industry, in construction, and around
the house for cutting, shaping, drilling, sanding, painting, grinding, and polishing.
Stationary power tools for metalworking are usually called Machine tools.
The lathe is the oldest power tool, being known to the ancient Egyptians. Early
industrial revolution-era factories had batteries of power tools driven by belts
from overhead shafts. The prime power source was a water wheel or a steam
engine.
Stationary power tools are prized not only for their speed, but for their accuracy.
A table saw not only cuts faster than a hand saw, but the cuts are smoother,
straighter and more square than even the most skilled man can co with a handsaw.
Lathes produce truly round objects that cannot be made in any other way.
An electric motor is the universal choice to power stationary tools. Portable
electric tools may be either corded or battery-powered.
Common power tools include the drill, various types of saws, the router, the
electric sander, and the lathe.
The term power tool is also used in a more general sense, meaning a technique
for greatly simplifying a complex or difficult task.
1. POWER HACKSAW:
A power hacksaw is a type of hacksaw that is powered either by its own electric
motor (also known as electric hacksaw) or connected to a stationary engine. Most
power hacksaw are stationary machines but some portable models do exist.
Stationary models usually have a mechanism to lift up the saw blade on the return
stroke and some have a coolant pump to prevent the saw blade from overheating.
While stationary electric hacksaw are reasonably uncommon they are still
produced but saws powered by a stationary engines have gone out of fashion. The
reason for using one is that they provide a cleaner cut than an angle grinder or
other types of saw.
86

POWER HACKSAW

Hand-Held circular saws:

The term circular saw is most commonly used to refer to a hand-held electric
circular saw designed for cutting wood, which may be used less optimally for
cutting other materials with the exchange of specific blades. Circular saws can be
either left or right handed, depending on the side of the blade where the motor
sits and which hand the operator uses when holding a saw.
87

CIRCULAR SAW (PORTABLE)

5. DRILL:
A drill is a tool with a rotating drill bit used for drilling holes in various materials.
Drills are commonly used in woodworking, metalworking. Special designed
drills are also used in medical and other applications such as in space missions.
The drill bit is gripped by a chuck at one end of the drill and rotated while pressed
against the target material. The tip of the drill bit does the work of cutting into the
target material, either slicing off thin shavings (twist drills or auger bits), grinding
of small particles (oil drilling), or crushing and removing pieces of the work piece
(masonry drill).
8. BENCH GRINDER:
A bench grinder or pedestal grinder is a machine used to drive an abrasive wheel
(or wheels).
Depending on the grade of the grinding wheel it may be used for sharpening
cutting tools such as lathe tools or drill bits. Alternatively it may be used to
roughly shape metal prior to welding or fitting.
A wire brush wheel or buffing wheel can be interchanged with the grinding
wheels in order to clean or polish work-pieces.
88

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