MODULE 1:
• Introduction to steel and steel structures
• Properties of structural steel and types of Structural steel sections
• Introduction to design-design philosophies- Design loads and load combinations
• Connections: Bolted-different types-joints(lap joint, butt joint) -eccentric loaded
connections-beam to beam connections
• Connections: Welded-different types-joints(lap joint, butt joint) eccentric loaded
connections-beam to beam connections
INTRODUCTION TO STEEL AND STEEL STRUCTURES
Across the world, there is an increasing demand for steel structures due to a significant advantage
of steel over concrete: its ability to bear tension as well as compression effectively, resulting in
lighter construction.
Advantages of Steel Structures
• High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: The dead weight of steel structures is relatively small,
making it an attractive structural material for multi-storey buildings, long-span bridges,
etc.
• Ductility: Steel can undergo plastic deformation before failure, providing a greater
strength reserve.
• Prefabrication: Mass production and prefabrication are usually possible, resulting in the
economic construction of steel structures.
• Rapid Construction: Fast-paced assembly and erection are possible.
• Good Fatigue Strength: Offers high performance under cyclic loading environments.
• Ease of Strengthening: If necessary, steel structures can be strengthened at any time in
the future.
Disadvantages of Steel Structures
• High Initial Cost: Steel structures are generally more costly than other types of
structures.
• Reduced Fire Resistance: The strength of steel is reduced considerably when heated at
temperatures commonly observed in a fire; therefore, fireproofing treatment is necessary.
• Corrosion Susceptibility: When exposed to air and water (as in the case of bridges),
there is a high possibility of corrosion, requiring regular maintenance painting.
PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
1. Density: Defined as mass per unit volume. Structural steel has a density of 7750 to 8050
kg/m3.
2. Elastic Modulus (E): The measurement of the tendency of an object to be deformed when
force or stress is applied. The elastic modulus for all steel classes is equal to 2×105 MPa.
3. Poisson's Ratio: The ratio between lateral contraction and longitudinal elongation. The
lower the value, the less the object will shrink in thickness when stretched. Acceptable
values for structural steel range from 0.27 to 0.3.
4. Tensile Strength: Determination of the limit up to which an object can be stretched without
breaking. The fracture point is where the object breaks after stress application. Structural
steel has high tensile strength.
5. Melting Point: Steel typically melts at 1370 °C.
6. Hardness: The mechanical property by virtue of which steel offers resistance to
indentation and scratching. It is measured by the Brinell or Rockwell hardness tests.
7. Ductility: The property by virtue of which a material undergoes large inelastic (permanent)
deformation without loss of strength under a tensile load.
8. Malleability: A physical property defining a metal's ability to be hammered, pressed, or
rolled into thin sheets without breaking (deforming under compression to take on a new
shape).
9. Fatigue: Damage caused by repeated fluctuations of stress leading to progressive cracking
or failure of the structural element under cyclic loading.
10. Toughness: The mechanical property offering resistance to fracture under impact loading
(the ability to absorb energy up to fracture, measured as the area under the stress-strain
curve).
CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL
Depending upon the carbon content, steel is classified into the following categories:
Steel Type Carbon Content Primary Use
Dead Steel < 0.15% Structural Steel
Mild Steel 0.15% - 0.3% Structural Steel
Medium Carbon Steel 0.3% - 0.8% -
High Carbon Steel 0.8% - 1.5% Drilling Machine, etc.
Note: Steel with a carbon percentage over 1% is known as cast steel or carbon tool steel.
As carbon content increases, ductility decreases, while yield strength, Ultimate strength and
hardness increase.
Advantages of Steel over Concrete
• High strength and more economical for long-span structures.
• Rapid construction process.
• Easy to repair and modify.
• Highly ductile material.
• 100%scrap value.
• High quality and reliability due to controlled factory production.
Disadvantages
• Proneness to catch fire (requires fire protection).
• Long-term problem of corrosion.
LOADS ON STRUCTURES
Structural elements must be designed to withstand various loads specified by Indian Standards
(IS codes):
• Dead Loads: (IS 875 - Part 1)
• Imposed Loads (Live Loads, Crane Loads, etc.): (IS 875 - Part 2)
• Wind Loads: (IS 875 - Part 3)
• Snow Loads: (IS 875 - Part 4)
• Temperature, Hydrostatic, soil pressure, fatigue, accidental impact, explosions etc.
and load combinations (IS 1893 – 2002 – Part 1)
• Earthquake Loads: (IS 1893:2002 - Part 1)
• Erection Loads: (IS 800:2007 - Clause 3.3)
• Other Secondary Effects: Temperature variations, hydrostatic/soil pressure, fatigue,
accidental loads, impacts, explosions, and differential settlements, eccentric connection
etc.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Design
Methods
Working Stress Ultimate Load Limit State
Method Method Method
Limit State of Limit State of
Strength Serviceability
1. Working Stress Method (WSM)
• Concept: A traditional method assuming that structural materials behave in a linearly
elastic manner throughout the service load range (Elastic Design).
• Elastic Limit: The stress below which a material regains its original size and shape when
the load is removed. In steel design, it is taken as the yield stress.
• Permissible Stress: All sections are designed so that working stresses caused by
characteristic loads do not exceed the permissible limits:
Permissible Stress = Yield Stress / Factor of Safety (FOS)
• Limitations: Neglects material non-linearity, ignores buckling effects at failure, and
provides no allowance for the redistribution of loads in statically indeterminate structures.
2. Ultimate Load Method (ULM) / Plastic Design Method
• Concept: Structures are designed based on the ultimate load capacity when all fibres in
the steel section yield.
• Limitation: It does not ensure serviceability performance under working conditions.
3. Limit State Method (LSM) - (IS 800:2007)
• Concept: The structure should safely withstand all loads likely to act on it throughout its
operational life. The acceptable stage for safety and serviceability requirements before
failure occurs is called a Limit State. It uses multiple partial safety factors to provide
safety at ultimate loads and proper performance at service loads.
A. Limit State of Strength
Prescribed to avoid structural collapse which may endanger safety. It accounts for:
• Loss of equilibrium or stability of the structure.
• Failure by excessive deformation, rupture, fracture due to fatigue, or brittle fracture.
• Checked for members under tension, compression, flexure, and shear.
B. Limit State of Serviceability
Ensures comfort and operational efficiency under normal use. It checks:
• Deformation and deflection affecting appearance or effective use.
• Vibrations limit functional effectiveness.
• Repairable damage, cracks due to fatigue, fire or corrosion.
Safety Parameters
Design Strength = Ultimate Strength \ m
• Partial safety factor for loading (p): Reference Table 4 of IS 800.
• Partial safety factor for materials (m): Reference Table 5 of IS 800.
CONNECTIONS IN STEEL STRUCTURES
Connections join structural elements together so that internal forces transfer safely between them.
Historically, most major structural failures have been due to connection failures. They directly
influence fabrication costs and are highly complex because they are the most vulnerable parts of a
structure.
Types of Connections
1. Riveted Connections
2. Bolted Connections
3. Welded Connections
1. BOLTED CONNECTIONS
A bolt is a metal pin with a head at one end and a shank threaded at the other to receive a nut.
Parts must be tightly clamped between the bolt head and nut using washers (flat discs placed
under the nut to prevent surface damage).
Advantages & Disadvantages of Bolted Connections
• Advantages: Requires less manpower, ensures rapid erection speed, cheaper overall cost
than riveted connections, uses simple tools, is noiseless, and is a cold process requiring
no heat source.
• Disadvantages: Bulkier architectural appearance; reduced net tensile area at the root of
the thread; unfinished bolts have lower strengths due to non-uniform diameters;
connections may loosen under vibratory loads.
Classification of Bolts
• Unfinished Bolts (Black Bolts - IS 1363:2002): Made from mild steel with square or
hexagonal heads.
o Its shank is left unfinished
o A Grade 4.6 bolt has an ultimate tensile strength fub = 400 N/mm2 and a yield
strength fyb = 0.6 * 400 = 240 N/mm2.
o Used for light structures under static loads.
o Usually used bolt sizes: M16, M20, M24 etc.
o Tensile Area at Thread (Anb}) = 0.78 * Shank Area
• Turned and Fitted Bolts (IS 1364:2001): Used when no slippage is permitted under
accurate alignment requirements.
o Available from grades 4.6 to 8.8.
o Dimensions are typically 1.2mm to 1.3mm larger than nominal diameter.
• High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (HSFG - IS 3757:1985 / IS 4000:1992): Made from
quenched/tempered medium carbon steel.
o Tightened to high predefined tensions using torque wrenches (noiseless) so that
loads transfer primarily through friction between bolt and nut head, rather than
shank bearing.
o No slip occurs, minimising structural deformation with a smaller number of bolts
and reducing the required size of gusset plates.
o Holes larger than usual are provided to avoid lack-of-fit, governing the strength of
the connection.
Classification based on Load Transfer Mechanism
1. Bearing Type (Black / Turned Bolts): Load is transferred via shear in the bolt shank and
bearing (crushing) stress against the plate.
2. Friction Type (HSFG Bolts): Clamping force creates high frictional resistance between
plates; the bolt is not subjected to bearing or shear during service.
Failure Modes of Bolted Joints
• Shear failure of bolts
• Bearing (crushing) failure of plates
• Tension failure of bolts
• Tension or tearing failure of plates
• Block shear failure
Terminology & Design Parameters
• Pitch (p): Centre-to-centre spacing of bolts in a row, measured parallel to the direction of
load.
Minimum Pitch, pmin = 2.5d
• Gauge (g): Distance between two consecutive bolts of adjacent rows, measured
perpendicular to the direction of load.
• Edge/End Distance (e): Distance from the center of a bolt hole to the adjacent edge of
the plate.
Minimum Edge Distance, emin = 1.5d (machined cut)
1.7d (hand-flame cut)}
Governing Formulas (IS 800:2007)
• Joint Efficiency:
= [Strength of Joint/Strength of Solid Plate] *100
• Number of Bolts:
No. of bolt = P / Bolt Value;
P is the factored load and Bolt Value is the lesser of design shear capacity and design
bearing capacity.
• Strength of joint is the lesser value of the following:
o Design Shear Capacity (Vdsb):
Vdsb = Vnsb / mb;
Vnsb = fub/√3 (nn Anb+ns Asb
(For single shear: nn =1, ns =0; For double shear: : nn =1, ns =1)
o Design Bearing Capacity (Vdpb):
Vdpb = Vnpb / mb
Vnpb = 2.5 kb d t fu
o Design Rupture Strength / Tensile strength of Plate (Tdn):
Tdn = (0.9 An fu) / m1
• Design Yielding Strength of Solid Plate ($T_{dg}$):
Tdg = Ag fy /m0
WELDED CONNECTIONS
Consists of joining two pieces of metal by establishing a metallurgical bond via melting the base
metal and filler material.
Types of Welded Joints
• Butt Weld (Groove Weld): Made by butting plate surfaces against one another (Single V,
Double V, etc.).
• Fillet Weld: Applied along the surfaces of adjacent perpendicular/overlapping plates.
• Slot Weld: Fillet weld executed along the inside periphery of a circular/oval hole in an
overlapping plate.
• Plug Weld: An entire circular hole in one plate is completely filled up with weld metal
over another plate.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Welded Connections
• Advantages: No area reduction via hole drilling; highly economical due to elimination of
gusset angles/splice plates; higher joint efficiency; structurally rigid joints; clean
appearance; silent operation.
• Disadvantages: Brittle nature decreases fatigue resistance; uneven thermal cycles cause
residual structural distortion; requires skilled labor and continuous power supply; high
testing complexity for internal defects (air pockets, slag inclusion).
Fillet Weld Parameters
• Size of Weld (S): Specified by minimum leg length.
• Side containing the right angle of the fillet weld are called as legs
• Effective Throat Thickness (tw): Smallest cross-sectional dimension along the fusion
plane.
• End Return: Welds must extend continuously around corners for a distance of at least
$2S$.
• Design Strength of Weld ($f_{wd}$):
fwd = (fwn \mw) * Effective Area
(Where mw = 1.25$ for shop welds and 1.50$ for site/field welds).