Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.1
The limit of a function
a/ Intuitive notion of a limit
Limits of a function: (informal definition)
The notation
lim f x L
x c
is read “the limit of f(x) as x approaches c
is L” and means that the functional values
f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to a
unique number L by choosing x sufficiently
close to c (but not equal to c)
EXAMPLE 1. Informal computation of a limit
f(x)
x 2 3x 2
Using a table to guess the value of L lim
x 1 x 1
y
Solution. 3
x f(x) 2
0.99 -1.01 1
0.999 -1.001 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
0.9997 -1.0003 -1
1 undefined -2
1.0001 -0.9999
-3
1.001 -0.999
-4
1.01 -0.99
-5
1.2 -0.8
b/ One-sided limits
One-sided limits:
Right-hand limit: We write lim f x L if we can make f(x) as
x c
close to L as we please by choosing x sufficiently close to c on an
interval (c,b) immediately to the right of c.
Left-hand limit: We write lim f x L if we can make f(x) as
x c
close to L as we please by choosing x sufficiently close to c on an
interval (a,c) immediately to the left of c.
THEOREM 2.1: One-sided limit theorem
The two-sided limit lim f x L exits if and
x c
only if the two one-sided limits lim f x L
lim f x L
x c
and both exist and are equal.
x c
Furthermore, if
lim f x L lim f x
x c x c
then
lim f x L
x c
EXAMPLE 2.
Estimating limits by
graphing
Given the functions
defined by the graph in
the following figure,
find the requested
limits by inspection, if
they exist.
c/ Limits that do not exist
If a function does not have a (finite) limit as
x c , it is said to diverge as x c
EXAMPLE 3. A function that diverges
1
Evaluate lim 2
x 0 x
x f(x)
-0.1 100
-0.05 400
-0.001 1000000
0 undefined
0.001 1000000
0.005 40000
0.01 10000
0.1 100
The limit does not exists.
f rises without bound
INFINITE LIMITS
A function f that increases or decreases without
bound as x approaches c is said to tend to
infinitely (∞) at c. We indicate this behavior by
writing
lim f x if f increases without bound
x c
and by
lim f x if f decreases without bound
x c
EXAMPLE 4. A function that diverges by osillation
1
Evaluate lim sin
x 0 x
d/ Formal definition of a limit
LIMIT OF A FUNCTION (Formal definition)
The limit statement
lim f x L
x c
means that for each number 0 , there is a
number 0 such that
f x L whenever 0 x c
Epsilon – delta definition
EXAMPLE 5. An epsilon-delta proof of a limit
statement
x 1
Show that lim 3x 6 3
y f(x)=3x-6
Analysis
2
f x 3x 6, L 3 1
f x L 3x 3 3 x 1
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
f x L x 1 -3
3 -4
-5
Choose -6
3
Solution.
For a given 0 choose
Then
3
f x L 3 x 1 3
whenever
0 x 1
EXAMPLE 6. An epsilon-delta proof that a limit
does not exist
1
Show that lim does not exist.
x 0 x
Solution.
By way of contradiction, assume that lim f
x 0
x L
Thus, for each number 0 , there is 0
1
such that f x L
x
whenever 0 x c
1
If 1, then 0 , such that x L 1
1 1 x : 0 x
Since L L , it follows
x x
1 1
L 1 x
x L 1
There exists x, 0 x min 1
, . So
L 1
1 1 1 1
x L 1 1 L L
L 1 x x x
1 (Contradiction)
Thus, lim does not exist.
x 0 x
2.2
Algebraic computation
of limits.
L’hôpital’s rule
a/ Computations with limits
b/ Using algebra to find limits
EXAMPLE 7. 2
x 4x 3 x 1
Evaluate a ) lim b) lim
x 3 x 3 x 1 x 1
c/ Limits of piecewise-defined functions
EXAMPLE 8.
Find lim f x
x 0
x 2 1 x 2
, if x 0 , if x 0
a ) f x x 1 b) f x
1 cos x , if x 0
2, if x 0
1 2x 3, if x 1
, if x 0
c) f x x 1 d ) f x 1
, if x 1
x , if x 0 x 1
d/ Two special trigonometric limits
EXAMPLE 9. sin 4x 2
Find a ) lim
x 0 x2
x 1
b) lim
x 1 sin1 x 1
1 cos x
c) lim 2
x 0 x
SQUEEZE RULE
If g x f x h x on an open interval
containing c and if
lim g x lim h x L
x c x c
then
lim f x L
x c
EXAMPLE 10.
1
Find lim x .sin
x 0 x
L’Hôpital’s rule
A rule to evaluate indeterminate forms
THEOREM 4.9: l’Hôpital’s rule
Let f and g be differentiable functions with
g’(x)≠0 on an open interval containing c (except
possibly at c). Suppose lim f x g x produces an
x c
indeterminate form 0/0 or ∞/∞ and
lim f x g x L
x c
where L is either a finite number, + ∞ or - ∞. Then
lim f x g x L
x c
EXAMPLE 11. Find
sin x
1 / lim
x 0 x
x sin x
2 / lim
x 0 x3
3 / lim
1 cos x sin 4x
x 0 x 3 cos x
2x 2 3x 1
4 / lim 2
x 3x 5x 2
x sin x
5 / lim
x x cos x
Some special limits
sin u tan u sin1 u
lim 1 ; lim 1 ; lim 1
u 0 u u 0 u u 0 u
u 1 cos u 1 1 cos u
lim 1 1 ; lim 2
; lim 0
u 0 sin u u 0 u 2 u 0 u
lim e x ; lim e x 0
x x bx
a
lim ln x ; lim ln x lim 1 ea .b
x x 0 x
x
ln x ln x 1
lim n ; lim n 0
x 0 x x x lim 1 h e
h
h 0
e kx
lim n ; lim x ne kx 0
x x x
k, n 0
INDETERMINATE FORMS
0
,
0
0
1
0
0
0
Form How to find the limit
0/0 or / Using l’Hôpital/ Simplifying function/ Using special
limits
lim f g is 0 form f 0
f g 0
( f 0 and g ) 1 g
g
f g
1 f
+ Reducing to the same denominator/ Multiplying by
the conjugate
+ Using properties of given functions. For examples,
ln a ln b ln ab
a
ln a ln b ln
b
lim f g is one of + Let L lim f g . Find A ln L [Link] f
indeterminate forms: + Conclude: L e A
1 , 0, 00
NOT INDETERMINATE
0
EXAMPLE 12. Find
1 / lim x tan x
2
x
2
7 / lim ln 2x 1 ln x 3
1 x
1
2 / lim cos x 1 . sin1 3x
x 0 x sin x 8 / lim
3 / lim x sin x
x 0
x . sin x 2
x 0 x
tan
1x x 2 2
4 / lim x 9 / lim
x x 2
x
3
5 / lim 1
x
x
6 / lim x ln x
x 0
2.3
Continuity
a/ Intuitive notion of continuity
DISCONTINUOUS
b/ Definition of continuity
Continuity of a function at a point:
A function f is continuous at a point x = c if the
following three conditions are satisfied:
1. f c is defined;
2. lim f x exists;
x c
3. lim f x f c
x c
A function that is not continuous at c is said to
have a discontinuity at that point.
EXAMPLE 13. Testing continuity
Test the continuity of each of the following functions at x = 1.
x 2 1
if x 1
a ) f x x 1
3 if x 1
sin x 1
b) h x x 1 if x 1
2 x if x 1
c/ Continuity theorems
Theorem 2.4: Continuity theorem
If f is a polynomial, a rational function, a power
function, a trigonometric function, or an inverse
trigonometric function, then f is continuous at
any number x = c for which f(c) is defined.
Theorem 2.5: Properties of continuous functions
If f and g are functions that are continuous at
x = c, then the following functions are also
continuous at x = c.
Scalar multiple sf (for any constant s)
Sum and difference f g and f g
Product fg
Quotient f g (g(c) ≠ 0)
Composition f g (g is continuous at c
and f is continuous at g(c))
COMPOSITE LIMIT RULE
If f is a function continuous at L and lim g x L
x c
then
lim f g x f L
x c
That is
lim f g x f L f lim g x
x c x c
ONE-SIDED CONTINUITY
The function f is continuous from the right at a
lim f x f a
if and only if
x a
and it is continuous from the left at b if and
lim f x f b
only if
x b
d/ Continuity on an interval
The function f is said to be continuous on:
1. the open interval (a,b) if it is continuous at
each number in this interval.
2. the half-open interval [a,b) if it is
continuous on (a,b) and is continuous from the
right at a.
3. the half-open interval (a,b] if it is
continuous on (a,b) and is continuous from the
left at b.
4. the closed interval [a,b] if it is continuous on
(a,b), is continuous from the right at a and is
continuous from the left at b
Usually there are only a few points in the domain of a
given function f where a discontinuity can occur. We use
the term suspicious point for a number c where either:
(1) The defining rule for f changes
(2) Substitution of x = c causes division by 0 in the
function
x 1 if x 1
f x
x
2
if 1 x 3
cos x if x 3
x 2
x 2
if x 2
h x
x 2
2 if x 2
NOTES
1. An elementary function is defined as taking sums, differences,
products, quotients, roots, inverses and compositions of finitely
many polynomials, rational, trigonometric, exponential,
logarithmic functions.
2. An elementary function is continuous at any point where it’s
defined.
3. A discontinuity of a given piecewise-defined function can occur
at suspicious points.
How to find the intervals on which f is continuous
1. Find the domain of f, namely D.
2. Find the suspicious points of f on D (the defining rule for f changes).
3. Check continuity at suspicious points.
4. Conclude: f is continuous on A, where A is the set formed by omitting from D
suspicious points at which f is not continuous.
EXAMPLE 14. Checking continuity at suspicious points
Find the intervals on which the following functions are continuous.
1
x . cos if x 0
a/ f x
x
2x 3 if x 0
2x 3 if 2 x 5
b/
g x
x 2 if 5 x 8
EXAMPLE 15. Find all values of m such that the following functions
are continuous at x=1.
ln x
e x
e
if x 1 if x 1
a / f x 1 x ; b / f x x 1
mx 1 if x 1
m if x 1
EXAMPLE 16. Find all values of m such that the following functions
are continuous everywhere.
cos x 1
if x 0
f x
x2
2x m 3 if x 0
e/ Intermediate value theorem
Theorem 2.6:
The intermediate value theorem
If f is a continuous function on
the closed interval [a,b] and L is
some number strictly between
f(a) and f(b), then there exists at
least one number c on the open
interval (a,b) such that f(c) = L.
Theorem 2.7:
Root location theorem
If f is a continuous function
on the closed interval [a,b]
and if f(a) and f(b) have
opposite algebraic signs (one
positive and the other
negative), then f(c) = 0 for at
least one number c on the
open interval (a,b)
EXAMPLE 17. Using the
root location theorem
Show that
ln 2 x x 3 3x
has at least one solution on
the interval [7/4, 2].
Solution.
2.4
Exponential and
Logarithmic functions
(self-study)
a/ Exponential function
f x b x
b 0, b 1
EXAMPLE 18. Graph an exponential function
1
Graph f x x
3
Basic properties of exponential functions
Let x and y be real numbers,
a and b positive numbers
EXAMPLE 19. Exponential equations
Solve each of the following exponential equations
x2
a. 3x
2
x
9 b. 3x 5x 1 45 c. 4
3
23 x
8
b/ Logarithmic function
y logb x b 0, b 1
(logarithm of x to the base b)
Basic properties of logarithmic functions
b 0, b 1
EXAMPLE 20. Evaluating a logarithmic expression
1
Evaluate log 3 log 3 81
9
EXAMPLE 21. Logarithmic equation
Solve the equation
log 2 x 19 2 log 2 x 1 2
c/ Natural base e
c/ Natural base e
x
1 1
e lim 1 lim 1 h h
x x
h 0
c/ Natural base e
x
1 1
e lim 1 lim 1 h h
x x
h 0
f x e x : natural exponential function
EXP notation
exp f x e
f x
d/ Natural logarithmsz
Common logarithm log10 x log x
Natural logarithm loge x ln x
Theorem 2.9: Basic properties of the natural
logarithm
ln1 0 ; ln e 1 ; e ln x
x x 0
ln e y y ; b x e x ln b b 0, b 1
Theorem 2.10: Change-of-base theorem
logc x
logb x
logc b
b, c 0, b 1, c 1
e/ Continuous compounding of interest
P: the initial investment (present valuve or principal)
i: interest rate during a period
A: the future value
A P Pi P 1 i
e/ Continuous compounding of interest
P: the initial investment (present valuve or principal)
i: interest rate during a period
A: the future value
A P Pi P 1 i
Interest is usually compounded more than once a year
e/ Continuous compounding of interest
P: the initial investment (present valuve or principal)
i: interest rate during a period
A: the future value
A P Pi P 1 i
Interest is usually compounded more than once a year
r: the annual interest rate
the interest is compounded n times per year
e/ Continuous compounding of interest
P: the initial investment (present valuve or principal)
i: interest rate during a period
A: the future value
A P Pi P 1 i
Interest is usually compounded more than once a year
r: the annual interest rate
the interest is compounded n times per year
The interest rate during each 1/n (year) is i = r/n
e/ Continuous compounding of interest
P: the initial investment (present valuve or principal)
i: interest rate during a period
A: the future value
A P Pi P 1 i
Interest is usually compounded more than once a year
r: the annual interest rate
the interest is compounded n times per year
The interest rate during each 1/n (year) is i = r/n
The balance at the end of the first period
e/ Continuous compounding of interest
P: the initial investment (present valuve or principal)
i: interest rate during a period
A: the future value
A P Pi P 1 i
Interest is usually compounded more than once a year
r: the annual interest rate
the interest is compounded n times per year
The interest rate during each 1/n (year) is i = r/n
The balance at the end of the first period
r
A1 P 1
n
The balance at the end of the second period
2
r r
A2 A1 1 P 1
n n
The balance at the end of the second period
2
r r
A2 A1 1 P 1
n n
The balance at the end of t years
nt
r
A t P 1
n
FUTURE VALUE
If P dollars are compounded n times per year at
an annual rate r, then the future value after t
nt
years is given by r
A t P 1
n
and if the compounding is continuous, the future
value is
A t Pe rt
EXAMPLE 22. Continuous compounding of interest
If $12,000 is invested for 5 years at 4%, find the
future value at the end of 5 years if interest is
compounded:
a. Monthly
b. Continuously
c. If the interest is compounded continuously, how
long will it take for the money to double