UCID -16325

IAWRENCE LIVERMORE LABORATORY

Unimity of CaCfornia/Liwm, Califorrba

Alex Lorenz

September 5, 1973

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 PREFACE

This r e p o r t presents a comprehensive overview of neutron detection techniques

and a review of commonly used neutron detectors, t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and applica-
tions, and t h e i r commercial availability. This concise compilation of information and
data, collected from numerous sources, i s intended to be both a basic s o u r c e r e f e r e n c e
and an introduction f o r those unfamiliar with the field of neutron detection.
The extensive bibliography provides additional information and details on' the
detection techniques mentioned in t h i s report. Of particular value a r e H. H. B a r s c h a l l ' s
a r t i c l e on "Detection of Neutrons" in Handbuch d e r Physik, Volume XLV, published by
Springer- Verlag, B e r l i n (1958), W. D. Allen's book Neutron Detection, published by
George Newnes, Ltd., London (1960), J. B. Marion and J. L. F o w l e r ' s monograph
on F a s t Neutron Physics, P a r t 1, Interscience, New York (1960), and W. J. P r i c e ' s
Nuclear Radiation Detection, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, (1958).
 CONTENTS

Abstract- . ..
Introduction
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Neutron-Induced Reactions .
Elasticscattering .
Exoergic Charged P a r t i c l e Reactions .
7
1 ° ~ ( n , c r )Li
3 ~ e ( np)T
, .

Fission Reactions
. . Capture
Radiative . . .

Endoergic Reactions
Neutron Detector Types . . .

Ionization Chambers . .
Proportional Counters .
Proton Recoil Proportional c o u n t e r s .
BF3-filled Proportional Counters
Boron-lined Proportional Counters
3 ~ e - f i l l e dProportional Counters .
Semiconductor Detectors . . .
Scintillation Counters
P a s s i v e Detectors .
Foil Detectors .
P a r t i c l e Track Detectors . .
Moderated Activation Detectors .
Thermoluminescent Detectors
Miscellaneous Detector Types
Applications of Neutron Detecting Instruments .
Relative Intensity Measurements .
Total Source Strength Measurements .
Neutron Flux Measurements .
F a s t Ncutron Flux .
Intermediate Neutron Flux
Slow Neutron Flux .
I
Neutron Spectrometry
Neutron Dosimetry .
Appendix A. Commercially Available Neutron Detectors and T h e i r
Characteristics ..
 REVIEW OF NEUTRON DETECTION METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS

This r e p o r t i s an overview of neutron detection methods and neutron detector

types. A brief description of the neutron-induced reactions m o s t useful in neutron
detection and a discussion of s e v e r a l c l a s s e s of neutron detector types and their
applications a r e included, a s is an extensive bibliography. A l i s t of commercially
available neutron detectors and their c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s appended.

INTRODUCTION

Because the neutron is an uncharged particle, it cannot be detected until it has

undergone a nuclear interaction t o produce detectable ionizing radiation. The problem
of neutron detection is further complicated by the fact that neutrons often occur
together with gamma radiation, to which most neutron s e n s o r s have a s i m i l a r r e -
sponse, making the identification of neutrons m o r e difficult.
Neutron detection thus r e l i e s on the interaction of neutrons with matter, a
p r o c e s s that generally tends to degrade their energy continually, down to the energy
region where they a r e absorbed and generate detectable nuclear particles and radiation.
Although neutrons can be absorbed a t higher energies, it is m o r e common to allow the
neutrons to degrade in energy to a s t a t e in which the neutron energy spectrum
approaches thermal equilibrium with the surrounding medium. The thermalization of
a fast neutron (e.g., 1 MeV) can take from a few to a few hundred microseconds; slow
neutron lifetimes can be a s long a s a few tens of milliseconds, until they a r e ultimately
elisninated by nuclear absorption.
Because of these factors and because the reaction probability of neutron detection
m a t e r i a l s depends on neutron energy, [Link] for neutron detection a r e m o r e
complex than those designed f o r detecting charged particles o r other ionizing radiation.
F o r the s a m e reasons, i t i s a l s o evident that detection of slow neutrons is. e a s i e r than
th.e detection of fast o r intermediate energy neutrons, particularly if the energy spectrum
of these neutrons is to be measured.
T h e neutron energy spectrum can b e divided into four energy regions, based on
the types of neutron reactions typical of each region and on s o m e convenient energy
limits inherent in .the r e s p o n s e of detector m a t e r i a l s and t h e i r instrumentation.
The slow neutron energy region encompasses the r a n g e between 0 and 0.4 eV.
This i s a l s o r e f e r r e d to a s the t h e r m a l region, although t h e r m a l neutrons actually
have a Maxwellian distribution with a mean energy of 0.025 eV (equivalent to a neutron
velocity of 2200 m/sec). The 0.4 eV upper l i m i t of this energy range is determined by
the "cadmium cut-off" energy, a .convenient measurement limit. The c r o s s sections
of m o s t reactions used to detect neutrons in this energy range vary inversely with
their velocity.
The intermediate neutron energy region extends from the cadmium cut-off energy
of 0.4 eV up to 200 keV. This spans an energy range containing a number of reaction
c r o s s sections that exhibit pronounced i r r e g u l a r i t i e s known a s resonances. F o r this
reasor] Lhis energy region i s also r e f e r r e d to a s the resonance region.
The f a s t neutron energy region c o m p r i s e s the energy r a n g e between 200 keV and
20 MeV and is the energy r a n g e in which m o s t neutrons originate. Its lower energy
limit, which f o r m s a convenient upper limit f o r the intermediate range, i s a l s o a lower
limit for the efficient application of f a s t neutron detectors. Its upper limit of 20 MeV
i s the threshold f o r the nuclear break-up p r o c e s s and the relativistic. region and is an
upper energy l i m i t of the low energy neutron physics field under consideration.
The high energy neutron region, o r relativistic region, i s the energy region above
20 MeV. T h e detection of neutrons in this energy range is beyond the scope of this
review and will not be discussed.
The field of neutron detection can be divided according t o the neutron detector
type and according t o t h e application of the detector. Following an introductory s u m -
m a r y of neutron-induced reactions used in the detection of neutrons, we review the
field of neutron detection from t h e s e two points of view, The appendix of this r e p o r t
l i s t s commercially available neutron detectors and their c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

CHARACTERISTICS OF NEUTRON-INDUCED REACTIONS

Our s u m m a r y of neutron-induced reactions that f o r m the physical basis of

neutron detection is based on thc classification adopted by Barschall (BA56). F i v e
specific c l a s s e s of neutron interaction with m a t t e r a r e pertinent in the consideration of
neutron detectors. A l l neutron detection s y s t e m s consist of instruments that
incorporate m a t e r i a l s to bring about one of t h e s e neutron-induced reactions and to
provide a means of measuring o r indicating t h e r e s u l t s of the nuclear interaction.
The five c l a s s e s a r e elastic scattering,' exoergic charged particle reactions, fission
reactions, radiative capture, and endoergic reactions,

Elastic Scattering

Elastic scattering is widely used in detecting fast neutrons. It is usually

observed through the ionization produced by the recoiling nucleus. T h e choice of
nuclide to be used in a recoil detector depends on two m a j o r considerations. F i r s t , a s
cat] be seen from kinematic analyses (SE53,BL55A), the maximum energy t r a n s f e r in
a collision of a neutron with a nuclide can be expressed
where ER is the maximum recoil energy, En the energy of the incident neutron, and
A the atomic weight of the nuclide. F r o m this expression we s e e that the maximum
energy of the recoiling nucleus is highest for nuclides of low atomic weight. F o r this
reason recoil detectors r e l y primarily on hydrogen, deuterium, and helium.
The second consideration a r i s e s from the energy dependence of the scattering
c r o s s sections of these nuclides in the fast energy region.
Below 1 MeV, hydrogen
has considerable advantage over deuterium and helium because of its higher neutron-
proton scattering c r o s s section. F o r the detection of neutrons above 1 MeV, helium
i s favored because of the broad resonance in the neutron-helium scattering c r o s s
section in the 1 to 2 MeV range. At energies above the helium resonance region the
anisotropic scattering c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of deuterium m a k e s its u s e m o r e desirable for
certaln applications.
Although the high neutron scattering c r o s s sections of hydrogen, deuterium, and
helium a t energies below 0.5 MeV favor thc u s c of the recoil method in detecting
neutrons at this level, its extension into that energy r a n g e r e q u i r e s electronic dis-
crimination techniques (e.g., pulse shape discrimination) t o differentiate between
ionizing events produced by neutrons and by gamma r a y s .
T h e advantages of the recoil method of detection a r e (1) slow neutrons a r e easily
discriminated because of the negligible energy t r a n s f e r to the recoiling nucleus,
( 2 ) stable hydrogenous compounds a r e readily available, and (3) the total H(n, p)
s c a t t e r i n g c r o s s section is known with good accuracy.
Applications of elastic scattering to the detection of f a s t neutrons a r e numerous.
F o r example, proton recoil h a s been widely used in proportional counters and liquid
scintillators. Deuteron recoil in liquid scintillators h a s been applied to time-of-flight
spectroscopy with the advantage of lower gamma r a y sensitivity and avoidance of the
colmpeting radiative capture reaction in hydrogen. High p r e s s u r e 4 ~ proportional
e
counters, used extensively in the nuclear safeguards program, have a higher efficiency
and lower gamma r a y sensitivity than those filled with hydrogen o r methane.

Exoergic Charged P a r t i c l e Reactions

In exoergic neutron-induced charged particle reactions t h e reaction products have

a g r e a t e r kinetic energy than the original particles, i.c., the reaction energy, Q, is
positive. The common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of thcsc reactions a r e (1) t h e i r very high
reaction c r o s s sections a t low neu trun energies, which make them specifically
adaptable to the detection of slow neutrons, and ( 2 ) the prompt emission of easily
detectable high energy charged particles. T h e s e reactions a r e extensively used a s the
detection b a s i s of proportional and scintillation counters, a s well a s f o r foils and
 photographic emulsions. Although p r i m a r i l y used to detect slow neutrons, .their use
in detecting f a s t neutrons can be extended by using a neutron moderator.
The following four exoergic charged particle reactions a r e widely used in the
detection of neutrons.

This reaction has long been used in the detection of low energy neutrons. The
1°B c r o s s section has a value of 3837 b a r n s a t 0.025 eV and d e c r e a s e s according to
7
the l / v relationship with increasing energy up to 100 Lev. The 10J3(n,n) L i reaction
7

proceeds both to the ground and f i r s t excited (0.4774 MeV) s t a t e s of ' L i a s follows:

7 ~ + ia + 2.792 MeV
loB +n/
1 7 "
LiT + cr + 2.31 MeV

7 Li*
7 ~ + i7 + 0.4774 MeV.

F o r thermal neutrons, only -6% of the reactions lead t o the ground state, s o that in
94% of the capture events a 480 keV prompt g a m m a r a y is emitted from the decay of
the excited s t a t e of 7 ~ i .
The high t h e r m a l c r o s s section and the simultaneous emission of the alpha
particle, 7 ~ recoil,
i and gamma r a y offer a number of possibilities for neutron
detection techniques. In addition, the o c c u r r e n c e of boron in a variety of f o r m s m a k e s
i t v e r s a t i l e for application in low energy neutron detection. At higher neutron energies,
however, this reaction yields a m o r e complex distribution of reaction products that,
together with the existence of competing reactions [e.g., (n, p), (n, t), and (n, d)], m a k e s
its application t o higher energies m o r e difficult.

The chief u s e of 3He i s a s a t h e r m a l neutron detector. Although its t h e r m a l

c r o s s section of 5327 barns a t 2200 rn/sec exceeds that of the 1 0 ~ ( n J c rreaction,
) the
3
high cost of He often prevents it from being used competitively with 1°B in gas-filled
counters. One of the advantages of this reaction i s the smooth variation'of the reaction
. c r o s s section up to 2 MeV, which a l s o makes it applicable to neutron s p e c t r o m e t e r s in
the MeV range. Another advantage of this reaction is the absence of excited s t a t e s of
the daughter nucleus, s o that a single reaction energy corresponds to a given neutron
energy and the total reaction energy from the capture of a neutron i s high enough for
the pulse not to be distorted by gamma-ray-induced electrons. As a detecting material,
3 ~ ise used in gas-filled proportional counters and gas scintillators.
' ~ i ( n ,a ) T
6
F r o m its thermal value of 945 [Link], the c r o s s section f o r t h e Li(n,a)T reaction
d e c r e a s e s with increasing neutron energy according to the l / v law until it f i r s t exhibits
a resonance in the region of 250 keV. This reaction i s readily adaptable to the
detection of slow neutrons; i t s high reaction energy of 4.78 MeV helps distinguish the
reaction product recoils from gamma rays. At higher neutron energies the l a r g e
[Link] of the 6~ i ( na,) c r o s s section is widely used in 6Li-loaded scintillators
designed f o r the detection of f a s t neutrons. However, s i n c e lithium has no usable
gaseous compounds, it i s not a s v e r s a t i l e a s boron.

This reaction has a limited application to neutron detectors because of its low
c r o s s section and the competing 14PJ(n,a)11B reaction a t higher neutron energies. It
i s used p r i m a r i l y in the detection of neutrons with photographic plates in which nitrogen
occurs naturally. In a d d i t i o n , 1 4 ~i s commonly included in a counter gas a s a s m a l l
impurity to provide an energy calibration point.

Fission Reactions

The l a r g e amount of energy r e l e a s e d from fission m a k e s it an efficient and con-

venieAt method to detect neutrons. Fission events a r e detected by the ionization
[Link] the fission fragments o r by the detection of the fission fragment radio-
activity. . .reaction products,
Because of their insensitivity to gamma ' r a y s or ,other
fission detectors a r e particularly suited t o environment$ &high
. . gamma-ray
,,..
.
.-
fluxes.
In general, fissionable m a t e r i a l used in detectors can b e div'ided into two
categories: slow fissionable ( 2 3 3 ~ ,2 3 5 ~ jand 2 3 9 ~ u ) , with thermal fission c r o s s
232 234u 236u,
sections of a few hundred barns, and fast fissionable (23 pa, Th, >

2 3 8 ~ ,and 2 3 7 ~ p ) whose
j fission thresholds occur above 0.4 MeV. One aspect that
puts a limit on the use of fissionable m a t e r i a l s in fission detectors i s their natural
6.
alpha decay activity; if the alpha half-life i s <10 yr, the m a t e r i a l i s difficult t o use a s
a detector because of the alpha particle buildup during the a v e r a g e pulse. However,
6
i f the alpha activity does not exceed that of a 10 - y r ha1.f-life, it i s possible to s e t
discriminating levels of the detectors high enough to eliminate detection of the alpha
particles. The fissionable nuclides that fall into t h i s category and r e q u i r e m o r e c a r e
in their [Link] as neutron detector's a r e 2 3 1 ~ a j2 3 3 ~ ,2 3 4 ~ ,and 2 3 9 ~ u . In
general, [Link] of the undesirable properties of their gaseous compounds, f i s s i u r ~
detectors use the metallic o r oxide form of the fissionable m a t e r i a l s .

Radiative Capture

This process, in which the capture of a neutron by a nucleus f o r m s a compound

nucleus that decays to its ground s t a t e by emitting one o r m o r e gamma r a y s , is used
f o r the detection of neutrons either by detecting t h e capture gamma r a y s o r by
observing the activity of the product nucleus. Radiative capture by heavier elements
is well suited to the detection of slow neutrons because of the high value of the capture
c r o s s secli'on a t low energies and the relatively s m a l l probability of competing r e -
actions, such a s elastic scattering.
Detecting neutrons by observing the capture gamma r a y s has not found extensive
use. The principal u s e of'the radiative capture reaction in neutron detection has been
in the observation of the unstable product nucleus and its activity. The choice of the
capturing element is dictated by i t s c r o s s section, the decay c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
product nuclide, and its physical form. Detectors a r e usually foils o r capsules,
although other techniques, such a s the manganese bath (MnS.04 in solution) f o r the
calibration of neutron sources, a r e also used. The elements m o s t often used in
radiative capture detectors a r e sodium, [Link], cobait, cadmium, indium, iodine,
and gold.
Another neutron detection technique based on radiative capture, frequently used
to detect and estimate weak neutron sources, is the Szilard-Chalmers method (SZ34).
This technique uses the energy of the recoiling product nucleus to break a chemical
bond, thus separating the radioactive nuclei from the stable ones and enhancing the
concentration of the [Link] element.

Endoerpic Reactions

In endoergic neutron-induced reactions, the kinetic energy of the reaction

products is s m a l l e r than the kinetic energy of the initial particles by an amount equal
to t h e reaction energy. These reactions have an energy threshold (determined by the
minimum reaction energy) below which they are'energetically impossible. Since these
threshold energies a r e primarily in the fast energy region, endoergic neutron-induced
reactions a r e specifically suited for the detection of f a s t neutrons.
In general, endoergic reactions emit either m o r e than one neutron o r a charged
particle. Siuce .the threshold of the reaction is usually chosen to be close to the energy
of the neutron to b e detected, the emitted charged particles have a low energy and a r e
difficult to detect. Although it is possible to o b s e r v e the ionization produced by the
emitted charged particle, the nietl~udnormally adopted i s to m e a s u r e the activity in-
duced in the product nucleus.
Detector choice for endoergic reactions is s i m i l a r to that for radiative capture.
Decay half-life, emitted radiation, effective threshold, and magnitude of the reaction
c r o s s section determine the applicability of a nuclide to given detection c r i t e r i a .
Threshold detectors a r e normally foils o r capsules that m e a s u r e the induced activity
after the exposure of the sample to the neutron environment.
In addition to the endoergic reactions that emit either m o r e than one neutron o r
charged particles, inelastic scattering '(e.g., (n, n l ) ,reactions), which leaves the excited
nucleus in an i s o m e r i c state, has a l s o been used a s a threshold detector of f a s t neutrons.
 NEUTRONDETECTORTYPES

T h e development of specific neutron detector types h a s been dictated by the

combined consideration of the neutronic and physical properties of neutron-sensitive
m a t e r i a l s and the desired performance of a particular detector. Although the
principles a r e few, the number of applications is large. Neutron detectors can b e
classified a s ionization chambers, proportidnal counters, - semiconductor detectors,
scintillation counters, and passive detectors. Of these, the f i r s t four a r e complex
in thcir design and r e q u i r e ancillary e1ectrnni.c instrumentation. P a s s i v e detectors a r e
simpler, s m a l l e r , and r e q u i r e analysis subsequent t o the detection process.
Ionization chambers and proportional counters a r e gas detectors that depend on
the ionization of a gas by a high energy charged particle. A third detector that i s a l s o
a gas ionization detector i s the ~ e i g e r - ~ G l l counter.
er This detector, however, is
not easily adapted to the d i r e c t detection of neutrons but is often used in the detection
and m e a s u r e m e n t of gamma radiation i,nduced by neutrons. The essential difference
between the t h r e e types of gas ionization detectors is in the voltage applied between the
two electrodes of the instrument, which determines the field strength in the filling gas.

Ionization Chambers

Ionization chambers, probably the m o s t widely known and used particle detectors,
usually consist of a gas-filled chamber containing a cathode and a collector anode, o r
plate. Most ionization chambers operate in the range of 200 to 4000 V, while high
p r e s s u r e chambers may r e q u i r e up to 20,000 V.
Ionization chambers work because a charged particle passing through a g a s
leaves in its wake a l a r g e number of ion p a i r s whose c h a r g e i s collected and measured
on the collector plate. In the specific application to neutron detection, the charged
particles originate from neutron interactions either in the chamber gas itself o r in a
r a d i a t o r located within the chamber. Depending on the neutron r e a c t i v e element used,
ionization c h a m b e r s detect either f a s t o r slow neutrons. Depending on their construc-
tion and associated electronics, they can a l s o b e used a s either integrating chambers
o r pulse counters. T h e f o r m e r m e a s u r e the average ionization c u r r e n t produced by
many events; the l a t t e r r e c o r d the number and magnitude of individual ionization ever~ts.
Integrating ionization chambers have been used to m e a s u r e the fast. neutron flux
by observing the d i r e c t c u r r e n t caused by recoil protons in a hydrogenous gas. The
homogeneous ionization chamber is one such chamber; it was originally developed by
E r e t s c h e r and French (BR44)and subsequently used by L a r s s o n (LA54). This technique,
however, has two inherent problems: l o s s e s in the chamber wall and the effect of
background ionizing radiation.
To compensate for those protons that l o s e p a r t of their energy outside the sensitive
volume of the chamber, the chamber walls of s o m e detectors have been coated with a
hydrogenous m a t e r i a l having a composition s i m i l a r to that of the gas. Effectively,
 t h e r e i s no discontinuity in m a t e r i a l a t the gas boundary; to the neutrons the chamber
appears to b e an infinite volume of gas. T h e effect of gamma r a y s and other,ionizing
radiation h a s been suppressed by comparing the c u r r e n t f r o m two identical chambers .
having the s a m e sensitivity to ionizing radiation but filled and lined with hydrogenous
m a t e r i a l having' different r e s p o n s e to neutrons.
Pulsed ionization chambers a r e designed to detect individual ionization events
' originating either in the filling gas o r caused by particles ejected from a radiator. .

Ionizing particles detected in an ionization chamber m a y b e either recoiling nuclei o r

the charged products of 'nuclear reactions. In [Link] mode of operating ionization
chambers, t h e r e i s a limit t o the voltage that can b e applied without introducing
electrical noise. This limit s e t s a lower charged particle energy limit of -100 keV.
Another limitation of pulsed ionization chambers i s the difficulty of recording particles
having a long range in the ionization chamber gas'.
In general, the use of the proton recoil mechanism in ionization chambers has
been limited by the lack of internal gas amplification of the ionization produced by the
recoiling proton and the resulting electronic am'plification nois e level. M o r e commonly
used in ionization chambers a r e reactions such as 1°g(n, 0 )o r fission in which the
pulse height is l a r g e in comparison to the,amplifier noise level o r to pulses generated
by gamma-ray- induced electrons.
Ionization chambers incorporating boron a s the r e a c t i v e element have been
p r i m a r i l y of the boron-lined counter type (L050, JA53, TA51, MA54, LA51, DU57,
AB56). T h e s e counters do not exhibit a s flat a response plateau a s the gas-filled
BF3 counters (which operate m o r e effectively a s proportional c h a m b e r s ) because
s o m e of the alpha-particle energy is absorbed in the counter lining. However, their
advantage is that the filling g a s can be chosen f o r i t s counting qualities and the counter
itself can be designed to operate a t lower voltages than BF3-filled tubes. Commercially
available boron-lined chambers usually o i e r a t e a t -600 V, while BF3-filled counters
r e q u i r e from 2000 to 4000 V.
The standard boron-lined chamber (type TQT) developed in England has been
described by Jacques et al. (JA53). Taylor and Sharpe (TA51) have described i t s
BF3-filled counterpart (type TPA). Gamma-ray compensated boron-lined ionization
chambers, which provide for electronic o r mechanical control of the gamma-ray flux
contribution, have been described by MacCreary and Bayard (MA54) and Duchene et al. -
(DU57 ), respectively.
One type of ionization chamber that i s widely used in the detection of neutrons
r e l i e s on the fission process. Such fission chambers, in which the fissionable m a t e r i a l
is either the chamber lining o r a r a d i a t o r , a r e very effective because of the high energy
and s h o r t range of the fission fragments. However, for this s a m e r e a s o n and because
fissionable m a t e r i a l i s not available in gaseous form, s u c h counters have a low detecting
efficiency. To overcome this deficiency, s e v e r a l fission chambers have been designed
to i n c r e a s e the density of fissionable m a t e r i a l within the chamber: the s p l r a l chamber
( R a g ) , the multiplate chambers (AL55, ER56), 'and the cylindrical chamber (AV54).
The fissionable m a t e r i a l used in fission chambers depends on the neutron energy to be
measured.
Table 1 is a sllrnmary outline of ionization chambers.

P r o ~ o r t i o n a lCounters

A proportional counter i s usually a cylindrical ionization chamber where one

thin-wire [Link] is kept a t a positive potential with r e s p e c t to an outer cylindrical
electrode. These counters a r e employed
widely in the detection of neutrons from Table 1. Ionization chambers.
a few keV to s e v e r a l MeV and a r e used Proton-recoil chambers
to advantage in detecting f a s t neutrons in Homogeneous ionization chamber (BR44,
the presence of gamma r a y s .
Proportional counters differ from Boron-lined
ionization chambers in that they operate Standard chamber (JA53)
a t a higher voltage, s o the ions r e l e a s e d B C-lined chamber ( L A 5 1 1
4
by the passage of energetic ionizing compensated ionization chamber (MA541
particles a r e multiplied by secondary BF3 -filled chambers
ionization. Thus, for a given voltage,
-
Standard chamber (TA51)
the multiplication is constant and the pulse
Parallel-plate gamm-ray
s i z e i s proportional to the number of ion
chambers (JA53, MA54, DU57)
p a i r s produced and to the energy 01 the Fission chambers
detected particle. The pulse s i z e i s
Spiral-type chamber (R049)
g r e a t e r than an [Link] f r o m an
Multiplate chambers (AL55, ER56,
ionization chamber by a factor of 100 to
H054B)
1000. This gas amplification has the
Cylindrical chamber (AV54)
advantage over electronic amplification Gridded chamber (LA60)
because it eliminates electronic noise.
The other advantage of a proportional
counter over an ionization chamber i s that the pulse height is independent of the radial
position of the particle track.
Proportional counters applied to neutron detection make use of t h r e e techniques:
observation of recoils in hydrogen, helium, gaseous hydrocarbons, o r solid hydrogenous
7
r a d i a t o r s ; counting of alpha paCticles and 7 ~ recoils
i from the l D ~ ( n , a L
) i reaction in
B F -filled o r boron-lined counters, and detection of protons and tritium r e c o i l s from
33
the He(n, p)T reaction in ' ~ e - f i l l e d counters.

Proton Recuil Proportional Counters

. The proton recoil proportional counters p r i m a r i l y detect f a s t neutrons. Gas
recoil counters filled with a hydrogeneous gas a r e effective in the energy range from
2 o r 3 keV to 3 MeV. Since f o r a given neutron energy the m o s t energetic r e c o i l s a r e
those of hydrogen nuclei, hydrogen-both pure and in the form of hydrocarbons such
a s methane and propane- is the m o s t useful filling.
In s o m e specialized applications,
however, gases such a s helium may be p r e f e r r e d (WA54 1. The e a r l y development of
proportional counters filled with hydrogen and methane was done in England (SK52).
A review of the early development of gas recoil techniques has been published by
Rossi and Staub (R049), and Ferguson gives a comprehensive treatment of gas recoil
counters and their c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (FE60).
To increase the efficiency of gas-filled counters using proton recoil detection,
thin hydrogeneous r a d i a t o r s of polyethylene o r paraffin can be mounted in proportional
counters, either a s a lining of the inner wall chamber o r in the form of s e p a r a t e
r a d i a t o r s built into the chamber. An extension of this technique has led to the develop-
ment of recoil telescope detectors. This type of detector consists of a hydrogenous
radiator with two o r m o r e counters placed in tandem and operated in coincidence, o r
anti-coincidence, to detect the recoil protons. The advantage of this technique i s i t s
high degree of discrimination against background radiation; its disadvantage is its low
efficiency. F o r a detailed review of recoil telescope detectors, s e e (5060).
A proton recoil proportional counter specially designed f o r dosimetry applications,
closely approximates the neutron dose response of human t i s s u e and is gamma r a y
insensitive (HU51). It consists of two proton recoil r a d i a t o r s and uses a special gas
mixture. Another proportional counter based on proton recoil detection was designed
to minimize secondary scattering effects (PE56). This t r i p l e proportional counter
eliminated the need for wall corrections, and the r e s p o n s e spectrum to monoenergetic
neutrons i s in the form of a peak r a t h e r than a plateau. Another gas-filled counter,
using anti-coincidence methods to eliminate wall effects, is described in (GI53).

BF3 -filled
- Proportional Counters

The BF3 -filled proportional counters have been the m o s t widely used of all neu-
tron counters. Although primarily designed f o r slow neutrons, the B F 3 counter has been
adapted to fast neutron detection by surrounding it with a block of shaped neutron
moderating material, such a s paraffin o r polyethylene. One such design, known a s
the Long Counter, i s robust, insensitive to gamma r a y s , reasonably directional, and
not sensitive to variations in the power supply (HA47, ALGOB). It i s a relatively
efficient detector, and within the neutron energy r a n g e of 25 keV to 5 MeV the response
of the Long Counter is flat to within about f80/o. Another design, for detecting a highly
collimated neutron beam, combines the use of a l a r g c numbcr of BF3 counters in
paraffin surrnunding a centrally situated s c a t t e r e r (LA52A). This detector achieves
efficiencies of 20% for fast neutrons. To improve i t s efficiency in detecting slow
neutrons, the BF3 gas of proportional counters can be enriched in 'OB, increasing the
sensitivity of the detector by about a factor,of 5 over that of natural boron BF3 gas.
Nowadays m o s t commercially available BF3 counters contain enriched boron. One of
the important advantages of the BF3 c o u n t e r i s that the alpha and 7 ~p air t i c l e s a r e n o t
slowed down by the solid boron lining and, having the s a m e energy, they therefore
produce the s a m e pulse heights for all slow neutrons.

Boron-lined P r o ~ o r t i o n a lCounters

The boron-lined proportional counters' coated with enriched boron have been
developed to provide a high s'ensitivity to thermal neutrons compared to the B F
3
proportional counter. hey have the additional advantage of operating a t higher
temperatures. Proportional counters lined with l0I3 a r e effectively used in high proton
fields. Their sensitivity is proportional to the lining thickness, but self-absorption of
the alpha particles prevents significant i n c r e a s e s in sensitivity a t the g r e a t e r
thicknesses. These counters a r e insensitive to gamma r a y s and a r e capable of
neutron-sensitive operation in gamma-ray'fields a s high a s l o 4 o r 105 R/hr. Typically,
they a r e filled with argon o r COZ. Their operating voltage i s usually lower than that
of the BF3 o r 3 He chambers, and they [Link] produce l a r g e r output pulses with
s h o r t e r r i s e times.

3 ~ e - f i l l e dProportiorfa1 Counters

The 3He-filled
-
proportional counters employ the 3He(n, p)T reaction, which has
a smooth response with no resonances over a wide r a n g e in the low neutron energy
range. These counters, unlike BF3-filled chambers, c a n b e used effectively for
neutron spectrometry. Very high sensitivity can be achieved by increasing gas p r e s -
s u r e , which increase does not r e q u i r e much i n c r e a s e in operating voltage. F o r two
reasons, many of the reactions n e a r the counter wall do not contribute their full energy
to the output pulse. F i r s t i s the kinematics of the reaction, which produces two product
particles emitted in different directions, and second i s the relatively low stopping power
3 3
of He. The wall effect, however, has been minimized in all commercial He detectors
by increasing the counter diameter s o that the proportion of events n e a r the wall is
small; also, an i n c r e a s e of the helium p r e s s u r e o r the addition of s m a l l amounts of a
heavier gas improves the stopping power of the gas. Batchelor h a s developed a 3 ~ e -
filled proportional counter containing krypton and C 0 2 that i s useful in the region of
100 to 1000 keV (BA55). F o r a comprehensive review of 3 ~ neutron
e spectrometers,
s e e (BAFiO).
Table 2 i s s u m m a r y of proportional counters.

Semiconductor Detectors

Semiconductor radiation detectors behave like gas ionization c h a m b e r s except

that the charge is c a r r i e d by electrons and electron vacancies (holes) in a solid s e m i -
conducting m a t e r i a l instead of by electrons and positive ions in a gas. Because of this s i m -
ilarity, this detector is often called a solid-state ionization chamber. Small in s i z e and
 with low operating voltage requirements, it Table 2. Proportional counters'.
provides excellent energy resolution for
Proton recoil counters (AL57)
charged particles. F o r neutron detection,
Hydrogen-filled (WI50)
the seniiconductor~is coupled with con-
U e u t e r i u ~ ~ i - f i l l e(FE60)
d
version foils coated with neutron-
Gaseous hydrocarbon-filled (SK52)
sensitive m a t e r i a l s that produce charged
Hydrogenous radiator (HU51)
. particles for detection. Helium-filled (WA54)
The use of a solid a s a deteclor i s
Recoil telescope detectors (5060) .
very attractive because the sensitive
BF3
- counters
l a y e r can be very thin and yet possess a
Enriched BF3 counters (AB58)
high stopping power. Another advantage
Long Counter (HA47, AL6OB)
i s the low energy n e c e s s a r y to produce
Langsdorf counter (LA52A)
a single hole electron pair. The Multiple coincidence counters
intrinsically high response speed of the
Boron-lined counters
device r e s u l t s from the high mobility of
[Link]/COo-filled
... , counters
the c a r r i e r s in the electric field and the
3He-filled counters (BA60)
s h o r t distance b,etween electrodes. ,
' ~ e / k r ~ ~ t o n - f i l l counter
ed (BA55)
T h e r e a r e two c l a s s e s of s e m i -
' ~ e /. a r ~ o n - f i l l e dcounter (BL55B)
-

conductor detectors that can sustain a

high electric field inside a solid without
using high applied voltages. One type i s a r e v e r s e - b i a s p-n junction. This device i s
made of high-resistivity p-type m a t e r i a l into which a s m a l l amount of donor impurity
such a s phosphorus h a s been diffused. A second c l a s s i s the s u r f a c e b a r r i e r detector,
which is usually m a d e from high-resistivity n-type silicon. T h e nature and formation
of the s u r f a c e b a r r i e r is believed to a r i s e from s u r f a c e s t a t e s whose existence is
well-established f o r silicon and germanium. -
Both the '~i(n,cu) and the 3He(n, p ) reactions have been applied to neutron detection
by s u r f a c e b a r r i e r detectors. One such 6L i counter has been used p r i m a r i l y a s a
neutron s p e c t r o m e t e r (AR64). Surface b a r r i e r counters using 3 ~ applied
e to the
s p e c t r o m e t r y of continuous neutron s p e c t r a have been developed by Dearnaley and
Ferguson (DE62 and Love and M u r r a y (LO61). Walter developed a fast-respons e fis -
sion cle1;ector which detects electrical pulses from c a r r i e r s produced by the passage of
fission fragments through germanium p-n junction semiconductor detectors (WA58).

Scintillation Counters

The scintillation counter i s the m o s t sensitive and v e r s a t i l e detector f o r many

types of radiation. In addition to i t s efficiency, it has the corlsiderable advantage of
speed. The sci~ltillationcounter consists of a transparent scintillator optically coupled to a
photomultiplier. T h e photomultiplier output .is connected to electronic circuitry. When
a neutron o r other particle gives up its energy in the scintillator, it produces an
excitation that generates a flash of light o r scintillation. Somc of these photons then
s t r i k e the photocathode of the multiplier and cause the r e l e a s e of [Link]
photoelectrons a r e directed into the electrode s t r u c t u r e of the photomultiplier, where
t h e i r number i s increased by a very l a r g e factor'. The amplified electron c u r r e n t
finally a r r i v e s at the collector plate where it produces a voltage pulse proportional to
the light output of the scintillator.
Scintillators a r e attractive a s neutron detectors because the range of charged
particles f r o m neutron interactions i s s m a l l compared to. the sensitive volume of the
detector. In addition, scintillation detectors allow f o r a denser ionizing medium than
gas ionizatior~detectors, and thcy produce f a s t e r pulses that a r e particularly amenable
t o coincidence counting techniques.
To compensate for their high sensitivity to gamma rays, scintillation counters
m u s t include neutron reactive elements to enhance their r e s p o n s e to neutrons. The
reactions normally used to detect neutrons in scintillator m a t e r i a l s a r e
neutron scattering in hydrogenous m a t e r i a l s , where the high energy recoil
[Link] generate the scintiliation;
eroergic charged particle reactions in 6 ~ i 'OB, , sulphur, and others, which
r e l e a s e a considerable amount of energy in the form of charged particles that
produce ionization in the scintillator medium; and
radiative capture of neutrons in the cesium, iodine, cadmium, o r gadolinium
component of solid o r liquid scintillators and observation of the prompt o r
delayed gamma-ray emission.
A variety of s c h e m e s to reduce the gamma-ray sensitivity of organic scintillators
h a s been devised. Harding proposed using a layered mixture of scintillator and
hydrogenous m a t e r i a l (HA51 ). Hornyak (H052 ) constructed a g a m m a - r a y insensitive
4,

detector using a dispersion of ZnS in Lucite; ' another proposed design consisted in
embedding s m a l l pieces of plastic phosphor in Lucite o r quartz (MC54). Numerous
s i m i l a r detectors consist of ZnS o r KI suspension in paraffin, polystyrene, o r other
organic m a t e r i a l s (FR50, RM54, SE54, BR54). In addition, either neutrons o r g a m m a
r a y s in mixed radiation fields can be discriminated by pulse shape analysis (BI60,
KU71). A review of organic scintillation m a t e r i a l s and an experimental comparison of
these detectors was published by Koontz, Keepin, and Ashley (K055).
In general, the versatility of the scintillator technique m a k e s it adaptable t o the
detection of both slow and fast neutrons. Among the m o s t sensitive scintillators a r e
0 G
thallium-activated NaI [NaI(Tl)], europium-activated LiI [ Li(Eu)], 'ti-loadcd
cerium-aclivated silicate glass, and ZnS c r y s t a l s . T h e s i z e of the detecting scintillator
is critical in that it can significantly perturb the neutron field being measured. Except
f o r this flux perturbation effect and self-shielding effects, the scintillator h a s negligible
detection anisotropy. F o r m o r e detailed descriptions of scintillation detectors, s e e

4
.
-2-

Reference to a company o r product name does not imply approval o r recommenda-

tion by the University of California o r the U . S. Atomic Energy Commission to the
exclusion of o t h e r s that may be suitable.
(MUGO, BI60, SN69). Specific scintillators have been described in (GI67, B067, GR63).
Table 3 is a s u m m a r y of commonly used scintillator m a t e r i a l s .

Table 3 . Commonly used scintillatioxi detector m a t e r i a l s .

Solid inorganic scintillators (MU60, BI60)

Europium-activated LiI [LiI(Eu)] (SC53, MU58, GI61, L E 6 5 , H051)
Thallium-activated NaI [NaI(T1)1 (GR63 )
Thallium-activated log-loaded NaI (NE60)
'I'hallium-actlvated KI [KI(Tl)] (MUGO)
Thallium-activated CsI [CsI(Tl)] (KN56, EN58, BA68, ST58)
Silver-activated ZnS [ZnS(Ag)], " ~ o r n y a k~ u t t o n "(H052, H054A, KA49, K055) ' '

polyethylene-moderated ZnS(Ag), " ~ g g h e a d "Detector (M052B)

ZnS/B20 g l a s s m i x t u r e (GU55, AL52)
1% 6
Boron-( B ) and Lithium-( Li) loaded ZnS (SU56)
Cerium-activated burate g l a s s (B059)
Cerium-activated lithium-magnesium g l a s s (B059)
Liquid organic scintillators (MU60, BI60)
Xylene + p-terphenyl + dibiphenyloxazole (NE60)
Toluene + p-terphenyl (NE60)
Phenylcyclohexene + p- terphenyl + diphenyloxazole benzene (NE60)
Triethylbenzene + p-terphenyl (NE60)
Isopropylbiphenyl + p-terphenyl (NE60)
Boron-loaded toluene (B057)
Cadmium-loaded triethylbenzene (DI56)
Gadolinium -loaded xylene [Pilot LS /Gd]
Cd o r B-loaded liquid "total absorpt'ion spectrometer" (CL52, C 0 5 6 )
Boron oxide o r methylborate in terphenylPoluene (DR51, TH53)
Organic c r y s t a l s and plastics (B160)
Anthracene (BR56, KA57, SA56)
Stilbene (SA56, SW57A, B067, BR56, KA57)
Ouaterphenyl (SA56)
Polystyrene + p-terphenyl (SW54B)
Polyvinyltoluene + p-terphenyl (SW54B)
Noble g a s e s (HU6OB)
'13e (EV71. MA72)
3 ~ e / x e n o nmixture (N058A)
Argoll/nitrogen mixture (EG56)
Liquid noble. gas (N056B)
 P a s s i v e Detectors

P a s s i v e detectors do not r e q u i r e auxiliary electronic equipment t o amplify o r

analyze the detector signal at the t i m e and place of detection. The analysis of the
recorded detection i s performed later, usually in a controlled environment. P a s s i v e
detectors a r e s m a l l and simple, s o they a r e adaptab1.e to nonlaboratory situations.
This review discusses foil detectors, particle t r a c k detectors, moderated activation
detectors, and thermoluminescent detectors. ,'

Foil ~ e t e c t v r s

poi1 detectbrs use t h r e e categories of neufron-sensitive materials, all of which

have been used in neutron spectroscopy and for a c c u r a t e neutron flux mdasurements
over a'wide energy range. In all: c a s e s the detecting foils a r e exposed to neutrons and
,
the induced gamma, beta, o r fission product activity is measured. The d e g r e e of
activity produced depends on the intensity of the neutron flux, the duration of irradiation,
and the half-life of the product nucleus. Measuring of the activity after irradiation,
under controlled laboratory conditions, permits an accurate determination of the
neutron flux.
T h e t h r e e categories of foil detectors a r e activation foil detectors, resonance foil
detectors, and threshold foil detectors. Activation foil detectors, commonly r e f e r r e d
to a s 1 /v detectors, depend on their high radiative capture c r o s s sections and the smooth
energy dependence [Link] c r o s s section in the thermal and low energy range. They
a r e often used to m e a s u r e thermal flux. Because of i t s very l a r g e thermal c r o s s section,
indium i s m o s t widely used when high sensitivity i s required. Cobalt, because of the
5.2-yr half-life of the product nucleus, is adaptable to, integral 'measurements of the
neutron flux over long exposure times. Gold is p a ~ ' t i c u l a r 1well-suited
~ for precision
measnremenfs I I to~ 3'eV. , .,
Table 4 i s a l i s t of isotopic radiative
.. .
capture reactions 'amenable t o t h e r m a l
0 .

neutron activation detection, together w'ith t h e i r nuclear'cha~acteristics. The isotopes

I .

m o s t commonly used .as, acti"[Link] a r e underlined. Some of the listed isotopes

. I5 .. .
a r e available. .only in a chemical form (e.g., an oxide) that r e d u c e s the macroscopic
C .

cross"section shown. Since the total number of isotopes that can be activated by neutron
irradiation i s very large, we listed only those isotopes in which (1) the isotope in its
natural s t a t e is nongaseous, ( 2 ) the product nucleus i s gamma-emitting, 13) the half-life
of the product nucleus i s >1 min, and (4) the macroscopic activation c r o s s section
(equal to the microscopic activation c r o s s section multiplied by the atomic density
weighted by the natural abundance) i s >0.01 em-'.
~ e s o n a n c efoil detectors, which like activation foil detectors u s e the radiative
capture process, a r e suited to neutron detection in the intermediate energy r a n g e
because of the existence of pronounced resonances in their radiative capture c r o s s
section. Resonance detectors can be used to m e a s u r e the flux density of decelerating
neutrons from the cadmium cut-off energy of 0.4 eV up to -1 keV. Even though t h e i r
 Table 4. Isotopic radiative capture reactions amenable t o thermal neutron activation
detection.
2200 m/sec absorption
c r o s s section Half-life
Isotopic of Beta and gamma radiation
abundance M ~ C ~ O S C O
~ a~c~r oCs~c o p i c ~
Product product emitted by product nucleus c
Isotope (%) (barns) (cm-1) nucleus . nucleusc (MeV)

2 3 ~ a 100.0 0.40 f 0.03 0.01 2 4 ~ 'a 15 hr 8-(1.4). ~ ( 1 . 3 8 , 2.75)

% 100.0 0.232 f 0.003 0.014 "A1 2.31 min B'(2.85). ~ ( 1 . 7 8 )
'K 93.1 2.233.2 0.027 4 0 ~ 1.28~ [Link] 8-(1.31). ~ ( 1 . 4 6 ) .~'(0.4839
-
45sc 100.0
100.0
11.0 f 4.0
25.0 f 2.0 .
0.113
0.256
46m~c"
46~c
20 s e c
83.8 d
~(0.142)
8-(1.48, 0.36). ~ ( 0 . 8 9 , 1.12)
5 1 ~ 99.8 4.8 f 0.2 0.338 5 2 ~ 3.76 min 8-(2.47, ~ ( 1 . 4 3 4 )
"cr I,\
%f
5 5 ~ n
4.3
100.0
16.0 f 0.5
13.3 f 0.1
0.049
1.05 ' 5 6 ~ n
27.8 d
2.578 Irr
y(0.32)
,' '
8-(2.85). ~(0.R47, 1.81,11 2.11)
% 100.0
100.0 .
17.0 f 2.0
19.9 f 0.91
1.55
1.81
60m~o*
6 0 ~ o
10.5 min
5.26 y r
8-(1.55). y(0.059, 1.33) .
8-(1.48, 0.314). y(1.173, 1.332)
'
63~u 69.1 4.5 f 0.2 0.263 6 4 ~ u 12.9 h r 8-(0.573). 8+(0.656). y(O.511 1.':34)
/.'
65Cu 30.9 2.3 f 0.3 0.06 66cu 5.1 min 8-(2.63). ~ ( ,039)
1
6 4 Z n 48.9 0.82 f 0.01 0.026 6 5 ~ n 243.6 d ~'(0.327). y(O.511, 1.115)
/
6 9 ~ a 60.1 1.8 f 0.4 0.056 , 7 0 ~ a 21.1 min 8-(1.65): y(0.173, ,1.040)
5 ~ s 100.0 4.3 f 0.10 0.199 76~s 26.5 h r 8-(2.97), ~(0.559/2..10)many
"Br 50.5
50.5
2.6 f 0.2
8.6 ;t 1.4
0.027.
0.089
80m~$
'OBr
4.;4'hr
,,**l7.6 min
~(0.037) /
8-(2.0). p'(a.87). y(0.511, 0.618. 0.666)
49.5 3.5 f 0.5 0.036 "Br,,' 35.5 h r 8-(0.444),4(0.554-1.475) many
93m 100.0 0.15 f 0.1 0.0082 94miNb" 6.26 min 8-(2.1). y(0.0415, 0,703, 0.872)
100.0 1.15 f 0.05 0.063 94Nb 2.0X 104 yr- 8-(2.06), y(0.702, 0.871)
lo2Ru 31.3 1.2 f 0.3 0.027 lo3Ru 39.6 d 8-(0.22, 0.70), y(0.50, 0.61)
Io3Rh 100.0 11fl 0.798 104m~h* .4.4 min 8-(0.5). y(0.051-0.77) many
1OO:O 139 f 5 10.09 lo4Rh 43 s e c 8-(2.44). ~ ( 0 . 5 6 , 1.24)
lo8pd 26.7 12.0 i2.0 0.206 lo9pd ' 13.47 h r 8-(1.028). ~(0.088-0.6) many
107 2.42 min f i - ( l . ~ 4 ) ,~'(0.9). ~(0.434-0.632) many
Ag 51.4 35.0 f 5.0 1.05
109
48.6 4.2 f '0.7 0.12 :i:m~g* 253d 8-(1:5, 0.53. 0.087). ~(0.658-1.5) many
Ag 48.8 09.0 f 4.0 2.54 Ag 24.4 s e c 8-(2.87), ~ ( 0 . 6 5 8 )
'14cd 28.9 0.36 f 0.007 0.005 'l5?2d* 43 d 8-(1.62). y(0.485, 0.935, 1.29)
28.9 0.30 f 0.015 0.004 '15cd ' 53.5 h r 8-(1.11), ~(0.23-0.53) many
-
1 13~n .4.2 56.0 0.090 n 50 d y(0.192. 0.528. 0.724)
4.2 2 .O 0.003 l141n 72 s e c 8-(1.988), 8 (0.42), ~ ( 1 . 2 9 9 )
116m2 *
-
'l51n 95.8
95.8
85.0 f 10.0
72.0 f 4.0
3.12
2.64
116ml::+ ~~~~c 8-(0.22). ~ ( 0 . 1 6 4 )
P-(1.0). y(0.138-2.111) many
95.8 42.0 f 4.0 1.54 14 s e c 8-(3.3), y(0.434, 0.95, 1.293)
l2Osn 33.0 0.001 f 0.001 0.012 121m~n* 76 y r 8-(0.42), ~ ( 0 . 3 7 )
33.0 '0.14 i 0.03 0.002 lZ15n 27 h r 8-(0.383). no y
lZ3Sb 42.8
42.8
0.015 f 0.004
0.03 t 0.000,
0.002
0.004
~~~~~%~ :i ZJ; 8-(0.035). y(0.025)
j3-(1.19), .y(0.505, 0.603, 0.644)
42.8 3.4 f 0.8 0.045 Iz4sb 60.3 d 6 . ( Z . Y I ), ~(0.803-2.000) m M y
3 100.0 6.2 f 0.2 0.145 "'1 25.08 min 8-(2.12), y(0.441, 0.528, 0.743, 0.969)
133~s 100.0 2.6 f 0.2 0.0153 1 3 4 m ~ 22.90 hr 8-(0.55)~ ~ ( 0 . 1 2 8 )
100.0 27.4 f 1.5 0.232 134~s 2.05 y r 8-(0.662), ~(0.57-1.365)many
99.9 8.8 f 0.7 0.235 leO~a 40.22 h r 8-(2.175, 1.69. 1.38). y(0.320-2.53) many
141pr 100.0 3.9 f.0.5 . 0.108 14'pr 19.2 h r 8-(2.161, ~ ( 1 . 5 7 )
52~m 26.6 210 f 10.0 . 1.725 153~m 46.8 h r 8-(0.8). ~(0.07-0.64) many
lS4sm 22.5 5.5 f 1.1 0.038 155~m 22 min 8-(1.53). ~ ( 0 . 1 0 4 , 0.246)
lS1Eu 47.8 3000 f 200 29.7 153m1~u 9.2 h r 8-(1.88). 8+(0.89), ~(0.073-1.41)many
47.8 5000 f 300 49.5 15'Eu 13 y r 8-(0.22-1.46), 8+(0.47, 0.71). ~(0.122-1.53) many
58~d 24.9 3.5 f 1.0 0,026 lS90d 18 h r 8-(0.95). y(0.058, 0.363)'
15'Tb 100.0 30 f 10 0.946 l6'Tb 73 d 8-(1.74, 0.86). ~(0.087-1.272)many
I
'64Dy 28.2 2100 f 400 . 18.77 : ~ ~ m l w *75 s e c P-(1.04, 0.89). y(0..108, 0.152, 0.362, 0.514)
28.2 500 f 450 4.47 Dy 2.3 h r . 8-(1.29), y(0.095-1.08) many
165~0 100.0 3.45 f 0.35 0.11 166mH0.: 1200 yr 8-(0.067), ~(0.08-1.43) many
100.0 61.2 f 2.0 1.96 1 6 6 ~ ~ 26.9 h r 8-(1:84), ~ ( 0 . 0 8 1 ,1.38, 1.528. 1.663)
170Er 14.9 6.0 f 1.0 0.029 l7lEr 7.52 h r P-(1.40, 1.06). ~(0.112-0.96) many
169~m 100.0 115 f 15 3.83 170Tm 128.6 d . ' 8-(0.96), ~ ( 0 . 0 8 4 )
68~b 0.14 3200 f 400 0.109 lG9Yb 32 d -~(0.000-0.336)many --
174~b 31.8 65 f 5 0.505 17'yb 101 h r 8-(0.466), y(0.114, 0.283, 0.396)
176~b 12.7 5.5 f 1.0 0.017 177~b 1.9 h r 8-(1.40). ~ ( 0 . 1 2 2 ,0.151, 1.08. 1.241)
0.684 176mLu*
175~u 97.4 21f3 3.7 h r 8 - ( 1 . 3 1 ) ~~ ( 0 . 0 8 8 )
176~u 2.6 7 f 2 0.006 1 7 7 m ~ u o 155 d ~(0.0716-0.466)many
2.6 2050 f 50 1.784 1 7 7 ~ ~ 6.7 d PV(0.497). y(0.113, 0.208) ,
 Table 4. Continued.
2200 m/sec absorption Half-life
c r o s s section
Isotopic of . Beta and gamma radiation
abundance ~ i c r o s c o ~ i c~ ~a c r o s c o ~ i Product
c~ product emitted by product nucleus
Isotope (%) (barns) (cm-1) nucleus nucleusc (MeV)
'

42.4 d 8-(0.41); ~ ( 0 . 1 3 3 ,0.346, 0.482) complex

16.5 m i n ~(0.147, 0.172, 0.184, 0.319, 0.356)
115 d 8 (1.71. 0.522), ~(0.068-1.6) m a n y
24 h r 8-(1.31. 0.63). ~(0.072-0.773)m a n y
90 h r 8-(1.07). ~ ( 0 . 1 3 7 , 0.632, 0.768).
10.7 lnin y(O.0024-0.106)
16.7 h r 8-(2.12). y(0.155-2.0) many
94 d ~ ( 0 . 6 4 6 , 0.875) complex
13 h r 8-(OL143). ~(0.0493-0.1807)
8-(0.13). ~(0.129) ~ria~~y
15 d
31 h r 8-(1.13). ~(0.139-0.558) complex
1.4 m i n 8-(1.5), ~ ( 0 . 0 5 8 , 0.317, 0.612)
74 d 8-(0.67). y(0.296-0.612) many
17.4 h r 8-(2.24). ~ ( 0 . 3 2 8 - 1 . 7 )complex
18 hr 8-(0.67). ~ ( 0 . 0 7 7 , 0.191)
30 min 8-(1.69), ~(0.075-0.96) many
2.693 d 8-(0.962). ~ ( 0 . 4 1 2 , 0.676, 1.088)
46.57 d 8-(0.214). ~ ( 0 . 2 7 9 )
22.2 m i n 8-(1.23). y(0.029-0.895) many

'D. T. Goldman, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, Md.. private communication.

'Macroscopic c r o s s sections were caliulated, taking the isotopic abundance into consideration.
' c . M. L e d e r e r , J. M. Hollander, and I. Perlman, Table of Isotopes (John Wiley and Sons', New York) 6th ed.
* p a r t i a l activation t o m e t a s t a b l e s t a t e .

c r o s s sections r i s e t o high values a t low energies,these m a t e r i a l s c a n b e made to respond

a s resonance detectors by using neutron absorbing cadmium o r boron shields to make
them insensitive to t h e r m a l neutrons. A judicious combination of resonance detectors
and other foil detectors m a k e s an effective s p e c t r o m e t e r of high sensitivity over a wide
energy range. A representative l i s t of resonance reaction data, where the m o s t com-
monly used isotopes a r e u n d e r l i n e d , i s given in Table 5; a comprehensive tabulation of
resonance detectors and their c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a s been published by Zijp (ZI65).
Threshold foil detectors offer a convenient means of measuring neutron flux
density over a broad range of the f a s t neutron spectrum. By using a s e t of threshold .
detectors, it i s possible to obtain an approximate energy dependence of the neutron flux
density. Most of the available threshold detectors a r e based on endoergic and fission
reactions that have a threshold in the MeV energy r a n g e . Table 6 i s a l i s t of commonly
used threshold detectors. A cornp,rehansive list, together with an analysi.s of the
c r i t e r i a for selecting an appropriate s e t of threshold detectors, h a s been published by
Byerly (BY60). Grundl reviewed c u r r e n t techniques in the use of threshold detectors in
studies of fission-neutron s p e c t r a (GR68). The application of the threshold activation
technique to the determination of 2 3 5 fission
~ spectrum has been described by F a b r y
(FA67 ).
One widely used threshold detector system (HU56, RE58B) utilizes four fast .

neutr-on foil detectors and one t h ~ r m a neutron

l foil detector to determine the s p e c t r u m '
T a b l e 5. Resonance r e a c t i o n data (in o r d e r of i n c r e a s i n g r e s o n a n c e energy)(M070).
R e o r e s e n t a t i v e infinite dilution
Main r'esonance a b s o r p t i o n d a t a
Isotooic Half-life resonance Resonance Cut-off
abundince of p r o d u c t energy integral eriergy
Isotope (%) nucleus (eV) (barns) (eV) References

a
lo3~h 100.00 4.4 m i n 1.257 656 -0.5
1 1 SIn 54.0 m i n 1.457 3480 f 120 0.55 b
95.72
a
lalTa 99;99 115.0 d 4.28 ' 1558 -0.5

107 2.3 m i n 16.5 74 "0.5 a

Ag 51.53
186w 320 e
- 28.40 24.0 h r 18.8 0.6
1271 140 "0.5 a
100.00 25.0 m i n 20.5

'1 ° c d 12.40 48.6 m i n 89.0 - -

198pt 7.21 30.0 m i n 95.0 69 -0.5 a .

e
6 5 ~ u 30.91 5.1 m i n 227.0 2.3 rt 0.23 0.5

l o 0 ~ n [Link] 14.6 m i n 367.0

9 8 ~ 0 23.78 67.0 h r 480.0

f
6 3 ~ u 69.09 12.8 h r 580.0 5.1 f 0.15 0;5

80~e 49.80, 56.8 m i n 2000.0 - -

%
--.- -
100.00 15.0 h r 2850.0 0.3 f 0.01 0.5
f

a
R . A. C h a r p i e , e t al., Eds., P h y s i c s arid M a t h e m a t i c s ( M c G r a w - H i l l Book CO.,
New T o r k , 1356), Ch. 6. .
. B e c k h u r t s , e t al., Nucl. S c i . Eng. -
b ~ H. 17, 329 (1963).
'F. J. Jutlriston, e t al., J. Nucl. E n e r g y -
A l l , 9 5 (1960).
. M a c k l i n and nH.- s
d ~ L. P r o c . ~ o n ' f .nn P e a c e f u l U s e s of A t o m i c
E n e r g y , Geneva, 1955 (United Nations, Geneva, 1955), vol. 5, p. 96.
e ~ P.
. H a r r i s , C . D. ~ u e l h a u s e , and G. E. T h q m a s , P h y s . Rev. 5,11 (1950).
'R. Dahlberg, K . J i r l o w , and E. Johansson, R e a c t o r Sci. Technol. -14. . 33 (1961):
g ~ F.e i n e r , K n o w l e s A t o m i c P o w e r L a b o r a t o r y , Rept. K A P L 2000-16 (1961).
 Table 6. Threshold reaction's applicable to the detection of fast neutrons.
Threshold Fission spectrum.
energy averaged c r o s s section Product P r o d u c t nucleus
Isotope Reaction (MeV) (mbarns) Reference nucleus half -life

lo3~h (11. rlf) 0.04 -a 103mRh . 57.5 m i n

. - .

l1 (n, n f ) 0.34 200 f 8 1 1 15mIn 4.5 h r

160 , (n, p) 10.24 0.014 2 16N 7.2 s e c
'F (n. P) 4.25 0.5 2 190 29.1 s e c

+
2 3 ~ a

Mg
(n, P)
(n. p )
(n, P)
3.75
4.93
3.17
0.7
1.62
2 .0
2
3
2
2 3 ~ e
24 Na
2 5 ~ a
37.6 s e c
15.0 h r
60.0 s e c
27
2 7 ~ 1 (n. P) 1.90 4.32 f 0.2 1 Mg 9.46 m i n
% (n, P) 4.00 4 .O 2 28~1 2.31 m i n
29~i (n, P) 3 .OO 2.7 2 'A1 6.6 m i n
P (n. P) 0.73 30.5 f 1.2 4 31~i , 2.6 s e c
% ( 4P) 0.96 73 It 3 1 3 2 ~ 14.28 d
%I (n. P) (-0.62)~ 16.0 2 5~ 87.9 d
3 7 ~ ~ (n, P) 4.18 0.24 2 3 7 ~ 5.07 m i n
4 6 ~ i (n, P) 1.62 13.0 3 4 6 ~ c 83.9 d
b 3 5 4 ~ n 303.0 d
F e (n, P) (-0.09) 89.0
56Fe (n, P) . 2.97 1.15 f 0.04 1 5 6 ~ n 2.58 h r
58N1 (n, P) (-0.40)~ 120.0 f 6.0 1 5 8 ~ 0 71.3 d
9Be (n, a ) 0.67 10.0 2 . 6 ~ e 0.8 s e c
l~ h a ) 7.24 0.085 2 ~i 0.84 s e c .
"F (n, a ) 1.60 4.5 2 16N 7.2 s e c
20$ 11.5 s e c
2 3 ~ a (n, a ) 4.03 0.4 2
"Al 3.25 0.78 f 0.03 1 24 Na 15.0 hr
-. 2.01 1.43 2 28~1 2.31 m i n
3 4 ~ 1.37 3 .O 2 31~i 2.62 h r
5~~ (n, a ) (-0.94)~ 3 .O 2 3 2 ~ 14.28 d
51v .(n, a ) 2.09 0.08 2 48~c 1.83 d
1ZC.
(n, a n ) 20.28 (200)~ l lc 20.4 m i n
6 3 ~ u (n, 2n) ' 11.02 0.123 f 0.009 5 'j2cu 9.76 m i n
% (n, 2n) 12.41 (1100)~ 5 7 ~ i 36.0 h r
9 2 ~ 0 (n, a n ) 12.83 (1000)~ "MO 15.5 m i n
127[ 9.21 (1300)' 126[
(n, 2n) 12.8 d
2 0 3 ~ ~ (n, 2n) 7.76 (1000)~ 202~1 12.0 d ,

232Th
(n, f ) 1 .25d 87.5 f 3.5 1 F l s s l o n products -
a- (n, f ) 0.42~ -a F i s s i o n products -
23?u (n,f) ' 0.26 d a F i s s i o n products -
236u
(n, f )
0.70~ -a Fission products -
23au
- (n, f )
2 3 7 ~ ~ (n. f )
1.25~
0.32 d
325 f 19
1365 f 95
5
5
Fission products
Fission products .
-
-
-
'A. F a b r y , . e t al., in P r o c . IAEA Conf. on Nucl. Data f o r R e a c t o r s , Helsinki. 1970 (IAEA, Vienna,
1970). vol. 2, p. 535.
2 ~ J.. Hughes, P i l e Neutron R e s e a r c h (Addison- Wesley, 1953 ), p. 100.
3 ~ Fabry,
, p r i v a t e communication quotcd in (IC60).
4 ~M
. . Boldeman, J. Nucl. E n e r g y A/B 18,417 (1964).
5 ( ~ ~ 6 8 )
a ~ informatinn
o availahle.
b ~ x o e r g i creaction: Q-value i s given in p a r e n t h e s e s . Effective t h r e s h o l d i s in t h e MeV r a n g e .
'NO f i s s i o n - a v e r a g e d c r o s s s e c t i o n value available; value in p a r e n t h e s e s i s t h e a v e r a g e c r o s s s e c t i o n . ,
n e a r peak.
d ~ f f e c t i v e( e x t r a p o l a t e d ) threshold.
 In this system, foils of 2 3 9 ~ u(shielded with 'OB), 237
to acceptable accuracies. Np,
2 3 8 ~ ,and 3 2 a~r e used a s threshold detectors. The f i r s t t h r e e foils use the fission
reaction and the l a s t uses the 3 2 ~ ( np)
, reaction.
Some of the advantages of threshold detectors a r e t h e i r insensitivity to gamma
r a y s o r thermal neutrons, their suitability f o r extremely high flux intensities, their
ruggedness, and their independence of temperature, humidity, o r p r e s s u r e .

P a r t i c l e Track Detectors

The nuclear emulsion (CH54, BE63B, HA63, BE66A) and fission track (BE66B,
' PR68) techniques use nuclear particle t r a c k s to detect neutrons. They have an
advantage over other passive detection techniques, because (1) the permanent t r a c k
r e c o r d left by the particles allows a c c u r a t e range, angle, and ionization m e a s u r e m e n t s
to be made, and (2) g r e a t e r discrimination is possible against backgrounds of scattered
neutrons, electrons, and gamma r a y s . However, considerable labor i s involved in
reading the tracks.
The nuclear emulsion technique m e a s u r e s the flux and energy of incident neutrons
by detecting reaction products in a photographic emulsion. It can be applied in t h r e e
different ways: (1) observation of proton r e c o i l s that originate in the emulsion (R053),
(2) observation of Peaction products originating in nuclides with which the emulsion was
impregnated (KE50), and (3) observation of reaction products originating in an external
radiator. T h e nuclear emulsion technique can b e used in monodirectional b e a m s o r in
multidirectional neutron fields, either a s an integral neutron detector o r a s a
2
spectrometer. A typical emulsion plate consists of a 1-cm piece of emulsion, 600 p
thick, mounted on a glass plate. The t r a c k s can b e m e a s u r e d with a microscope of
magnification 500. A 5 MeV proton track h a s a track length of -I80 p, measurable
with high accuracy; accuracy deteriorates considerably a t proton energies below
500 keV, with 100 keV the approximate limit of measurement.
The photographic emulsion has the advantages that' i t is a very compact detector
with exceller.11:resolution and i t provides a permanent r e c o r d of the results, even in
low neutron density fields. In addition, it does not perturb the local neutron spectrum,
it r e q u i r e s no associated electronic equipment, and it allows for multiple simultaneous
m e a s u r e m e n t s (IC71). The disadvantage of the method i s t h e laborious nature of the
scanning p r o c e s s (IC69). Moreover, this method fails to detect effectively neutrons
with energies between -10 eV and 0.5 MeV (C058, CH54). Protons m u s t have an energy
of 0.25 MeV, corresponding on the a v e r a g e to a neutron energy of 0.5 MeV, to generate
a track a t the limit of recognition.
At the upper end of the energy scale, s y s t e m s with hydrogenous r a d i a t o r s can be
used up to -20 MeV (BE63). Although such detectors have a low gamma-ray sensitivity,
gamma-ray doses of 1 to 10 r a d will complicate interpretation, and higher gamma-ray
intensities will usually make track counting impossible.
 A comprehensive review of the nuclear emulsion technique i s given by White
(WH60).
Fission track detectors, which r e c o r d fission events by fission fragment etching
of glass, mica, o r plastic, offer an attractive alternative to counting fission product
gamma activity. This technique can detect both low energy neutrons (using 2 3 5 o
~r
2 3 9 ~ u )and fast neutrons (using any of the fast fissionable elements, e.g., 2 3 8 ~ ,2 3 7 ~ p ,
o r 2 3 2 ~ h ) Fission
. track detectors can be made to give absolute values and a r e totally
insensitive to gamma r a y s below the photofission threshold. Recent development of
traclc registration technirliies in g l a s s e s and plastics has opened a new possibility for.
fission (and alpha emitting) foil analysis (KE66). In this technique, thin fission foils
a r e placed in close contact with a g l a s s o r plastic surface, allowing the fission
fragments to intercept the surface; the g l a s s o r plastic i s then etched to r e n d e r the
t r a c k s visible under a microscope. ~ h e ' f i s s i o ntrack detection technique i s readily
adaptable t o longterm integrating measurements. In addition, (1) milligram r a t h e r
than g r a m quantities of f i s s i l e m a t e r i a l a r e sufficient, (2) t h e technique has very good
sensitivity, (3) e a r l y recovery of s a m p l e s is unnecessary a s the t r a c k s a r e permanent
a t normal temperature, and (4) complex and expensive electronics a r e not required
(IC7 1).

Moderated Activation Detectors

Moderated activation detectors, commonly r e f e r r e d t o a s Bonner spheres, con-

s i s t of a m a t e r i a l susceptible t o slow o r intermediate neutron activation surrounded by
a moderating o r absorbing spherical shell. Various activating m a t e r i a l s and moderating
envelope thicknesses can b e selected t o allow neutron detection over a wide r a n g e of
intermediate and f a s t neutron energies. These assemblies, although fairly l a r g e in
size, a r e easy to use and can be made to have low gamma-ray sensitivity and to be
insensitive to t h e r m a l neutrons. They a r e equally adaptable t o pulsed and to uninter-
rupted neutron fields and, like a l l detectors of spherical design, they have a nondirec-
tional response. Analysis of the r e s u l t s and determination of the m e a s u r e d spectrum
r e q u i r e s extensive calculation, for which computer codes have been written.

Thermoluminescent Detectors

A [Link] can in principle be any solid m a t e r i a l that, when irradiated, exhibits

a property whose response to radiation i s a function of the energy absorbed. Thermo-
luminescence is a physical property that has been applied to the detection of neutrons.
Although mainly responsive to gamma and high level heta radiation, the thermolumi-
nescence technique has been extended to detect t h e r m a l and slow neutrons by using the
neutron absorbing properties of 6 ~ and
i 1°E!.Two devices that use this technique a r e
6
the CaF2(Mn) thermoli~rninascentmaterial, used in conjunction with 'B and L i films,
6
and LiF, which can be enriched with Li to varying degrees. The addition of 6 ~toi
L i F v a r i e s the thermal neutron detector r e s p o n s e in mixed radiation fields. The
r e s p o n s e to neutrons of higher energies follows the Li c r o s s section energy dependence
and is low. Thermoluminescent devices can be quite small, a r e rugged and compact,
and have good energy s t o r a g e properties (IC7 1).

Miscellaneous Detector Types

In addition to t h e s e m a j o r neutron detection techniques, t h e r e exist s e v e r a l

miscellat~eousdetector types. They include n e ~ i t r o nradiography, cloud chambers,
and neutron thermopiles. Neutron radiography can be considered an extension of the
nuclear emulsion technique. It is, however, p r i m a r i l y a qualitative 111ethod. In
principle it i s very s i m i l a r to ,x-ray photography o r radiography. As in the case' of
x r a y s , neutrons a r e s c a t t e r e d and absorbed differentially by the constituents of an
item under investigation and can be recorded on a photographic plate. Neutron
radiography is used principally with slow neutrons and'takes advantage of the neutron
absorptive properties of el em ents, whtch a r e m o r e pronounced at lower energies.
Since photographic plates a r e not sensitive to slow neutrons, they a r e i ~ o r m a l l yused in
conjunction with a converter that emits alpha particles, gamma r a y s , o r beta r a y s
upon absorption of neutron and changes neutron intensity into film blackening.
Cloud c h a m b e r s a r e one of the oldest methods of detecting fast neutrons by the
proton recoil method. The analysis of cloud chamber data i s extremely time-
consuming and tedious, s o the use of other, m o r e efficient detectors is p r e f e r r e d .
However, cloud chambers a r e still used to r e c o r d ' n e u t r o n s between 10 keV and 500 keV,
an energy range in which it i s difficult to m e a s u r e the neutron spectrum with other
detectors. Although cloud chambers a r e normally filled with hydrogen, the composi-
tion and the p r e s s u r e of the cloud chamber g a s can be varied to suit a particular
experiment. Cloud chamber detectors have been used to study the fission neutron
spectrum (B052), the spectrum of a f a s t r e a c t o r (AN56), and the energy distribution
D-D neutrons emitted from the Zeta controlled thermonuclear device (R058).
Neutron thermopile detectors, o r neutron t h e r m o m e t e r s , w e r e designed p r i m a r i l y
to monitor the neutron flux in the high-flux environment of a nuclear r e a c t o r . T h e s e
instruments consist of a s e r i e s of thermocouples whose junctions a r e coated with
amorphous boron compound enriched with 'OB o r 2 3 5 ~ . The 2 3 5 coating, ~ however,
has the disadvantage of becoming radioactive after exposure to neutrons. T h e heat
generated by the alpha particles from the 1 0 ~ ( n , a reaction) o r by the fission products
from the 2 3 5 c~ r e a t e s an electrical signal proportional to the neutron flux. Thermopiles
of various construction a r e described in (JA50, LE51, WE57, GR57, LA52B, LA58A);
a m o r e extensive description of this type of detcctor is in (PR58),
T h e r e a r e a few other neutron detector types and techniques. Among t h e s e a r e
the gas evolution technique (HA54 and HA56), the boron-lined s p a r k chamber, (SA52,
SW57B, LA58B, SA57), detection based on the variation in semiconducting properties
(CA55), and the palladium film dosimeter, which i s based on the change in electrical
r e s i s t a n c e (CH58).
 APPLICATIONS OF NEUTRON DETECTING INSTRUMENTS

The use and application of specific neutron detecting instruments and the
techniques used to determine the intensity and energy of neutrons encompasses
practically the whole field of neutron physics.
Although no one instrument exists that can perform all neutron detection func-
tions, many detectors and the principles on which they a r e based have been adapted
to m o r e than one type of detection. T h e five general categories of neutron detector
applications a r e relative intensity measurements, total s o u r c e strength measurements,
flux measurements, neutron spectrometry, and neutron dosimetry.

Relative Intensity Measurements

The measurement of the relative neutron intensity, which i s the l e a s t complex of

neutron detection problems, [Link] of recording a number proportional to the number
of neutrons incident on a neutron detector. Detectors used for such m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e
a l s o r e f e r r e d to a s neutron monitors.
Measurements of relative intensity a r e frequently performed in neutron physics
experiments. The neutron intensity of the s o u r c e m u s t also b e monitored in m o s t
experiments conducted with r e a c t o r s o r a c c e l e r a t o r s . Most neutron detectors can be
used a s neutron monitors; the type of detector to be used in a specific situation will
depend on the experimental requirements and the energy r a n g e of the neutrons to be
detected. In general, neutron monitors should have low sensitivity to gamma r a y s a s ,
well a s a selective neutron energy and ' d i r e c t i q a l response. In s o m e instances i t is
n e c e s s a r y 'to design special collimating and shielding a s s e m b l i e s 'to confine the monitored
neutrons t o specific energy and angular incidenc'e.
Fission chambers and BF3 proportional counters have been used extensively a s
monitors for both slow and fast neutrons. The Long Counter (HA47)'is an example of
such a detector. Used a s a monitor a s well a s in other applications, it incorporates a
BF3 counter in a shaped paraffin block and h a s a nearly flat r e s p o n s e between 20 keV
and 5 MeV. Another monitor incorporates BF3 proportional chambers in a highly
efficient counter assembly (LA52A). M o r e recently, two high efficiency neutron
detectors consisting of a r r a y s of 3 He proportional counters imbedded in polyethylene
m o d e r a t o r s have been developed (EA69). Hornyak's inorganic c r y s t a l scintillator,
known a s the Hornyak Button, consists of a mixture of ZnS and Lucite and i s also used
to m e a s u r e the relative intensity of neutrons (H052). Moyer developed a polyethylene
moderated ZnS(Ag) scintillator, known a s the Egghead, f o r the detection of fast
neutrons (M052B). Nuclear emulsions a r e seldom used a s neutron monitors because
of the t e d i d i s process of reading t r a c k s ; t h e i r use, however, h a s been effectively
incorporated in a collimated detector assembly to m e a s u r e angular distributions (R055).
 Total Source Strength Measurements

A basic problem in neutron physics is measuring the total number of neutrons

emitted by a neutron s o u r c e p e r unit time. In s o m e c a s e s i t i s desirable to compare
a s o u r c c of unknown intensity with a known standard source; in others it i s rlecessary
t o determine the neutron s o u r c e intensity on an absolute basis.
Most methods devised to m e a s u r e neutron s o u r c e strength depend on degrading
the neutrons to low energies where they can be relatively easily detected. The
slowing-down medium m o s t commonly used i s water o r graphite. T h e energy-degraded
n c u t r o n ~are then absorbed by activation foils o r in an a b s o r b e r in solution, o r they a r e
detected by BF3 counters located in the slowing-down medium. This l a t t e r method i s
applicable to both relative and absolute measurements; absolute m e a s u r e m e n t s r e q u i r e
accurate calibration of the foils and an absolute determination of their activity.
M o r e a c c u r a t e methods used in the m e a s u r e m e n t of absolute neutron s o u r c e
strengths, such a s in the calibration of accelerator-generated neutrons f o r neutron
physics measurements, a r e the associated particle and associated product methods.
In neutron-yielding charged-particle reactions, such a s the DD o r DT reactions, a
charged particle (3 He o r 4 ~ e is) emitted f o r each neutron produced. The associated
particle method consists of measuring the total number of charged particles emitted
and from this m e a s u r e m e n t obtaining t h e total neutron s o u r c e strength (AL60). An
example of the associated particle method for measuring neutrons between 100 and
500 keV with a 6 ~ g lia s s scintillator is describcd in ( F 0 7 0 ) .
The associated product method consists of a quantitative measurement of reaction
product nuclei produced in a neutron-yielding reaction. One reaction that h a s been used
in this method is the 7 Li(p, n)7Be reaction. The amount of 7 B e formed i s determined
by measuring its radioactivity (TA48). Another reaction i s the 1 9 ~ ( an), 2 2 Na reaction
in which the radioactive 2 2 ~ product
a decays into stable 2 2 ~ e .In this instance the
m e a s u r e d volume of 2 2 ~ provides
e a quantitative measurement of the neutrons
produced (LI55).

Neutron Flux ~ e a s u r e m e n t s

T h e m e a s u r e m e n t of the neutron flux consists of the determination of the number

of neutrons within a given energy interval that p a s s p e r second through the s u r f a c e of
a s p h e r e whose cross-sectional a r e a is 1 cm .
2 Since neutron detectors respond p r e f e r -

rentially in either the fast, the intermediate, o r the slow energy ranges, the description
of t h e i r application t o neutron flux m e a s u r e m e n t s i s considered by energy range.

F a s t Neutron F l u x

The f a s t neutron flux is generally considered to c o m p r i s e neutrons whose energies

range from 200 keV to 20 MeV; this is the energy range in which m o s t neutrons a r e
produced. T h e f a s t neutron flux m a y originate f r o m monoenergetic neutron s o u r c e s
(e.g., accelerator-induced charged-particle reactions and isotopic s o u r c e s ) o r from
energy distributed sources (e.g., fission).
Because of the tendency of neutrons 'to degrade in energy upon scattering and to
b e absorbed in radiative capture reactions, the f a s t flux is usually accompanied by
lower energy neutrons and m a y a l s o have a strong gamma-ray background. Thus, a
frequent problem in fast flux m e a s u r e m e n t s i s the need to discriminate gamma r a y s
and lower energy neutrons.
Table 7 i s a s u m m a r y of neutron flux m e a s u r e m e n t methods in the energy region
between 30 keV and 20 MeV.
The proton recoil method to detect f a s t neutrons has been used extensively to
m e a s u r e the f a s t flux. Proportional counters filled with hydrogen o r other hydrogenous
gases a r e well-suited to the detection of neutrons between 20 keV and 3 MeV.
Proportional counter telescopes with hydrogenous film r a d i a t o r s extend the effectiveness
of these detectors to neutrons having energies > 3 MeV. T h e hydrogen-filled
homogeneous ionization chamber, which m e a s u r e s the d i r e c t c u r r e n t from proton
recoils, is another proton recoil method suitable f o r the m e a s u r e m e n t of the f a s t
neutron flux.
An alternate application of the proton recoil method i s the use of plastic o r liquid
scintillators that a c t both a s radiator and counter. These scintillators can be used
either independently o r in conjunction with coincidence proton recoil proportional
counters. Another proton recoil method i s the m e a s u r e m e n t of proton t r a c k s produced
in nuclear emulsions.
T h e associated particle and associated product methods, also used to m e a s u r e
the total neutron s o u r c e strength, can b e used to m e a s u r e the fast flux. Another
technique, which h a s the advantage of isolating the fast neutron component of the flux,
is m e a s u r i n g the activity induced in threshold detectors by endoergic o r f a s t fission
reactions ( s e e Table 6 ) . In addition the BF3 counter moderated with paraffin, although
basically a t h e r m a l neutron detector, has a high sensitivity, good gamma discrimina-
tion, and an energy r e s p o n s e that is nearly flat between 2 5 keV and 5 MeV. It i s a l s o
adaptable for relative measurements of the f a s t neutron flux.

Intermediate Neutron Flux

[Link]~!energy nel~tronsrange in energy between the cadmium cut-off

energy of 0.4 eV and 200 keV. The neutrons that populate this energy r a n g e a r e
p r i m a r i l y fast neutrons that have been degraded in energy a s a r e s u l t of inelastic
scattering i.n a slowing-down medium. Because of the difficulties inherent in detecting
neutrons in this energy range, intermediate energy neutrons a r e usually moderated t o
thermal energies where they can easily be absorbed by radiative capture o r exoergic
charge particle reactions.
Boron-loaded liquid organic scintillators, the so-called black detectors designed
to absorb all neutrons below a maximum energy, have been used to detect intermediate
 T a b l e 7. Methods of f a s t n e u t r o n fl,ux m e a s u r e m e n t s (PE60).

ABSOLUTE OR PRIMARY METHODS

R e c o i l P r o t o n Method
I-Iarwell proportional c o u n t e r (SK52, AL55, A L,57)
C o u n t e r t e l e s c o p e s (5056, BA57 )
Photographic p l a t e s (R053, ~ ~) 5 7
External radiator (PE60)
P l a t e a s r a d i a t o r and d e t e c t o r ( R 0 5 3 )
90° incidence (BA52)
o r g a n i c scintillation counteks
.Other proton r e c o i l m e t h o d s
R e c o i l s f r o m thin r a d i a t o r (with p r o p o r t i o n a l c o u n t e r ) (D157)
R e c o i l s f r o m thick r a d i a t o r s (BA47 )
Homogeneous ionization c h a m b e r (BR44, R049,. AL50, LA54)
Cloud c h a m b e r s a n d bubble c h a m b e r s
Neutron M o d e r a t i o n M e t h o d s
Tiquid m o d e r a t o r s
L a r g e liquid s c i n t i l l a t o r s (Cd solution) (RE54, D156)
MnS04 bath (ALGOB, BA52, SN50, DE55)
P a r a f f i n oil bath
G r a p h i t e a s s e m b l i e s (MA57, MA58, GR52)
47r paraffin-shielded c o u n t e r s
RELATIVE OR SECONDARY METHOLIS
Moderation Counters
Long c o u n t e r (HA47, AL67)
S c h a r d t ' s long c o u n t e r
Langsdorf d e t e c t o r (LA57)
Fission Detectors
P a r a l l e l p l a t e c o u n t e r s (R040, LA54)
S p i r a l and' c y l i n d r i c a l c o u n t e r s ( R 0 4 9 )
Fastfission detectors
F i s s i o n f r a g m e n t s in o r g a n i c s c i n t i l l a t i o n (MI54)
F a s t f i s s i o n in noble g a s e s (N056A, AV57)
F a s t f i s s i o n in s e m i c o n d u c t o r s (p, n junction) ( W A S )
3 ~ e ( np, ) T D e t e c t o r s (BA55)
ti.
-
Ll(n, cu)T D e t e c t o r s [ ' L ~ I ( E ~c)r y s t a l ] (MU58, MU57)
1
lnduced Activity M e t h o d s (TA40, BA52)
energy neutrons. The m a j o r difficulty of this technique i s discriminating the gamma-
r a y background. Other instruments, consisting of polyethylene-enclos ed scintillator
detectors, have been designed to have a ' f l a t response over the intermediate energy
range and excellent gamma discrimination.
Another method, which is often used to m e a s u r e the intermediate neutron flux in
and around r e a c t o r s , is resonance activation. Materials normally applicable. to such
measurements (e.g., gold, tungsten, o r mo1,ybdenum) have s t r o n g resonance of their
radiative capture c r o s s section and a decay,half-life of their daughter product that is
adaptable to foil counting techniques. The application of foil activation t o the
intermediate range, however, is considerably m o r e complex than the activation
detection of slow neutrons and is therefore used only where other detection techniques
cannot be applied.

Slow Neutron Flux

The slow neutron flux covers a much wider range, both in energy and intensity, than
the f a s t neutron flux. It i s sometimes accompanied by higher energy neutrons and
gamma r a y s that r e q u i r e discrimination.
In a nuclear r e a c t o r the slow neutron flux i s composed of two components. The
t h e r m a l o r Maxwellian component, between 0 and 0.1 eV, h a s an energy spectrum in
thermal equilibrium ,with the t e m p e r a t u r e of the r e a c t o r . T h e epithermal component
consiSts of a continuous energy spectrum between 0.1 and 0.4 eV and has a dependence
proportional to the neutron energy.
A wide variety of detectors is available to m e a s u r e the slow neutron flux; the .
specific application of any one of these d,epends on the conditions of the experiment.
A l a r g e fraction of these detectors use radiative capture, fission, and exoergie charged
particle reactions.
A significant characteristic of s o m e of these reactions is t h a t t h e i r c r o s s sections
a r e inversely [Link].1, to the neutron velocity, s o detectors that use t h e s e reactions
a r e called 1 /v detectors. Since the flux (4) in the epithermal energy range in a
r e a c t o r i s proportional to the neutron density (n) and the reaction velocity (v), i.e.,
4 = nv, the reaction r a t e per atom of detecting m a t e r i a l in a pure 'l/v detector i s
independent of velocity ( o r .energy) and proportional only to the total neutron density.
If the slow flux is accompanied by a significant number of higher energy neutrons, the
cadmium r a t i o method can b e applied to discriminate neutrons h a v ~ n genergies higher
than t h e cadmium cut-off energy of 0.4 eV.
Reactions m o s t commonly used in the m e a s u r e m e n t of the slow neutron flux a r e
3
l 0 g ( n , n), ' ~ i ( n , a ) , He(n, p), Mn(n, y), Au(n, y ) , and 2 3 5 ~ ( nf ),. The l 0 ~ ( n , a reaction
)
is probably used m o s t extensively. It i s used in gas-filled proportional and ionization
3
chambers both in gaseous (BF3) and solid form. The He gas proportional counter,
s i m i l a r to the BF3 counter, i s another commonly used thermal flux detector. Still
another gas proportional counter to detect slow neutrons is the fission chamber, in
which 2 3 5 o
~ r another fissionable m a t e r i a l is coated on the counter walls. This
detector i s very efficient in this low energy range and can operate a t temperatures a s
high a s 700°C and in extreme gamma-ray fluxes.
Scintillation c r y s t a l [Link] incorporating 6 ~ i such
J a s [ 6LiI(Eu)], ' ~ i - l o a d e d
cerium-activated silicate glass, and 6 Li-loaded ZnS, a s well a s activation c r y s t a l s
such a s NaI(Tl), a r e a l s o widely used to m e a s u r e the slow neutron flux.
Two passive methods, which provide a time-integrated neutron-flux m e a s u r e -
m ent, a r e foil activatior~and thermolum ines cenc e detectors.

Neutron S ~ e c t r o m e t r v

Neutron spectrometry i s an important branch of neutron physics that encompasses

a number of techniques for analyzing the energy distribution o r spectrum of neutrons.
It presents probably the m o s t difficult experimental problems among the neutron
detection categories. Neutron s p e c t r o m e t e r s a r e generally required to determine
energy s p e c t r a of neutrons to a high degree of efficiency and resolution.
Neutron s p e c t r o m e t r y methods can be separated into two categories. One of
these, applicable to continuous o r uninterrupted neutron fields, r e q u i r e s neutron
detection techniques that a r e specifically adaptable to neutron energy spectrum analysis.
The other, normally used when neutrons can be produced in b u r s t s o r in v e r y s h o r t
time intervals, c o m p r i s e s time-of-flight and c r y s t a l s p e c t r o m e t e r techniques that
r e l y on the spatial segregation of neutrons of different energies and r e q u i r e no special.
energy discriminating neutron detection technique. Most c r y s t a l s p e c t r o m e t e r s ,
however, 'are steady s t a t e devices and a r e useful only up to energies in the [Link].
Although time-of-flight techniques have very high detection efficiencies and
resolution over a wide energy. range, their application is r e s t r i c t e d p r i m a r i l y to
experimental neutron physics laboratory conditions and will not b e discussed in this
report. M o r e detailed descriptions of neutron time-of-flight techniques and their
[Link] can be found in (CA63, ALGOA, NE60).
Proton recoil and scintillation detectors a r e commonly used to m e a s u r e f a s t
r e a c t o r neutron s p e c t r a . Proton recoil proportional counters that r e q u i r e a collimated
incident flux have been described (5060, RE.58A). Benjamin (BE63A) and Bennett
(BE64, BE67) have devised proton recoil proportional counters that do not r e q u i r e a,
collimated incident neutron flux. Werle d e s c r i b e s spectrum m e a s u r e m e n t s of radio-
active neutron s o u r c e s it1 die 10 keV t o 10 MeV energy region with proton recoll
proportional counters and compares them with other methods (WE70).
High p r e s s u r e 4 ~ scintillation
e detectors, recently developed by Matthews and
Menlove (MA72), have been used to m e a s u r e fast neutron distribution from fission
reactions in a s s a y samples. These detectors a r e characterized by high f a s t neutron
detection efficiency relative to gas proportional counters, low gamma-ray sensitivity,
very s h o r t pulse length, energy discrimination capability, and compactness (EV71).
 Many of the neutron detection methods described in this r e p o r t can be applied to
neutron spectrometry; however, m o s t neutron s p e c t r o m e t e r s a r e based on m e a s u r e -
ment of the proton recoil energy in elastic scattering, and determination of the energies
of nuclear reaction products. Table 8 s u m m a r i z e s the m a j o r neutron s p e c t r o m e t r y
techniques and their performance and characteristics.

Neutron Dosimetry
-

T h e monitoring of neutron health hazards and studies of the biological effects of

radiation center around the measurement of absorbed radiation dose. Generally,
radiation dose is defined a s the amount of energy deposited p e r unit m a s s in irradiated
biological tissue. In the c a s e of neutrons, this energy deposition i s caused by nuclear '

reactions dependent. on the energy of the .incident neutrons. The relative biological ,

effectiveness (RBE) of the neutron radiation dose therefore has a specific nonlinear
energy dependence. As a result, neutron detecting instruments designe.d specifically
to m e a s u r e the neutron dose equivalent directly should ideally have an energy response
proportional to the RBE of neutrons .absorbed in tissue. ,

A s u m m a r y of detectors and techniques that have been adapted o r dcvel'oped

specifically a s neutron dose-measuring instruments is given in Table 9.
 Table 8. Properties of fast neutron spectrometers iCA63).
-

Useful
energy
range Method of recording
Type Resolution Efficiency (MeV) and analyzing r e s u l t s Remarks

Photographic plates 3% a t 14 MeV - 0.5-1 5 Measurement of recoil t r a c k Suitable f o r simultaneous exposure a t

[n-p s c a t t e r i n g ] 10.5 MeV con- length and t h r e e angles f o r s e v e r a l angles. Analysis e x t r e m e l y
s t a n t half-width each neutron counted laborious. Difficult to find high energy
ewer fairly l a r g e . .
neutrons ir. low energy background.
range) Poor intensity m e a s u r e m e n t .
Photographic plates 270 a t 14 MeV Very low 2-20 Measurement of r e c o i l proton M o r e a c c u r a t e absolute and r e l a t i v e
with external (0.3 MeV half- below t r a c k lengths in emulsion intensity m e a s u r e m e n t s than with
r a d i a t o r In-p width) 2 MeV plates alone.
scattering] ,

6 ~ loaded
i plates 0.2 MeV half- - 0-1.3 Range of a and -, and angle It i s not n e c e s s a r y f o r incident neutrons
~ ~ ~ ti ) l(Hne , width betwe n i s m e a s u r e d f o r t o be collimated o r t o come f r c m known
reaction] 8 .
each L L ( ~t ), 4 ~ event
e direction.
3 ~ propor
e
3'~onal 15% a t 0.5 MeV - - Pulse-height analysis B ck round from slow neutron c a p t u r e and
c o u n t e ~[ He(n, p)T 8% a t 2.0 MeV r e c o i l s from high energy neutrons.
reactiy]
. 6 ~ andi 'He solid s t a t e 60% a t 0.5 MeV -
spectrometers 6% a t 5.0 MeV
& Low p r e s s u r e cloud 0.2 MeV half- - 0.5-3.5 [Link]
0 c h a m b e r [n-p width direction of r e c o i l prcton
I r,ecoils in H2] t r a c k s from cloud chamber
photographs
Nigh . p r e s s u r e cloud 0.2 MeV half- 2-8.5 -
c h a m b e r In-p. width
r e c o i l s in methane]
Proportional counter 5 5 a t 1 5 MeV - 2.5-20 Integral r a n g e s p e c t r u m
t e l e s c o p e with counted
r a d i a t o r and
absorbers
Holt-Litherland 570 5-25 Analysis of phctographic Only p a r t of energy r a n g e m a y be studied
t r i p l e ionization r e c o r d of oscillograph a t any given chamber p r e s s u r e (range
c h a m b e r . T i m e of sweeps of 5 MeV o r l e s s in neutron e n e r g i e s ) .
a r r i v a l of ions f r o m Resolution i s not affected by high
end of proton r e c o i l '
g a m m a - r a y backgrounds.
track
Single a n t h r a c e n e 0.4 MeV High 1-3 Multichannel pulse-height
crystal analysis giving integral
spectrum
6 ~ (Eu)
i c r stal 670 a t 14 MeV 1-20 Pulse-height analysis No collimation required. F o r good
6
I Li(n. t ) Heg resolution the c r y s t a l m u s t b e cooled
reaction] to t h e temperatcr: of Liquid nitrogen.
 Table 8. (Continued).

Useful
energy
range Method of recording
Resolution Efficiency (MeV) and analyzing r e s u l t s Remarks
~- - - - - - - -- - - -

Recoil telescope with 6% a t 14 MeV 3 ~ 1 0 - ~ 2-20 P u l s e s from NaI c r y s t a l in

r a d i a t o r . Collimated a t 14 MeV coincidence with propor-
r.-p r e c o i l s passing [Link] counters a r e analyzed
through two p r o p o r - on multichannel analyzer.
tional counters into
NaI c r y s t a l
Scintillation c o u n t e r . 6% 6 X lo-'' 5-25 NaI and anthracene pulse A l s o used with anthracene a s second
telescope. Proton a t 20 MeV heights simultaneously crystal.
r e c o i l s from a n t h r a - recorded when in
cene passing through coincidence with propor-
proportional counter tional counter. Spectrum
into NaI c r y s t a l ar-alyzed f r o m film r e c o r d .
Scintillation counter 20 -28% Very low 2-15 Pulse-height analysis of pulses
spectrometer. f r o m scintillator that a r e in
he1 easuremerit of coincidence with detected .
r e c o i l proton energy r e c o i l neutron.
and detection of
I
w r e c o i l neutron a t
C, . specific angle
I
 Table 9. Dose equivalent neutron detectors (TC71).
Sens iti;rity o r Energy range
Detector Description working range response - Comments References
Proportional BF3 thermal neutron 2.5 cps/ Thermal to Commercially available; commonly referred
counter with . proportional counter m r em/hr 15 MeV to a s SNOOPY. Gives direct dose measure-
cylindrical in a cylindrical ment independent of neutron energy. Slight
moderator hydrogenous directional response produces maximum 10%
moderator sensitivity variation. Suitable for pulsed
neutron measurement; Portable mcdel '

weighs 8.5 kg. Not affected by gamma

exposure r a t e s <200 R/hr ( 6 0 ~ 3 ) .
Scintillator o r ' L ~ I ( E ~ )log-loaded
, ,1.5 to 15 c p s / 0.01 eV to Commercially available. Referred to a s
proportional plastic phosphor o r m r e m /hr 50 MeV Bonner sphere. Gives direct measure-
counter with BF3 proportional (depending on ment inde?endent of neutron er-ergy.
spherical counter a s thermal sphere diam- Nondirectional response. Multisphere
moderators neutron detector in eter) system yields spectrum information.
spherical hydro- Weight ranges from 5 to 40 kg. Gamma
genous moderator sensitivity depends on type of thermal
detector, by discriminator aghinst dose
r a t e s < l o 0 R/hr.
Recoil type Proportional counter Approximately 0.1 MeV t o Com31ercially available. F a s t neutron
proportional lined with cylindri- 0.1 cps/ 14 MeV i n s t r u m e ~ 'with
t response independent
counter cal hydrogenous mrem/hr of neutroc energy for direct measure-
radiator and filled ment of maximum dose equiva:ent. - Will
with hydrogenous tolerate gammalfast neutron dose ratios
gas of 200:l 'and thermal/fast neutron dcse
r a t e ratios of 100:l.
T i s s u e equiva- Spherical tissue 0.2 MeV to Pulse counting instrument specially designed
lent spherical equivalent propor- 14 MeV for the absolute measurement of f a s t
proportional tional counter filled neutron absorbed dose. Interpretation of
counter with tissue equivalent results involves complex analysis. Re-
gas at low p r e s s u r e quires multichannel analyzer. Non-
(few mm Hg). Pulse directional response. Moderate weight
counter. and size.
Ion recombina- Tissue equivalent co infcrrnation .. fast neutrons Method under development primarily for the
tion [Link] parallel plate ion measurement of fast neutrons and mixed
chamber chamber with radiations. Potentially suited for mixed
tissue equivalent radiation dosimetry near high energy
gas at p r e s s u r e s up accelerators.
to 6 atm.
Liquid ioni- Yery small ion >15 mrem/hr fast neutrons Method under development for measurement
.- zation chamber using 'of dose equivalent of fast neutrons and
chamber n-pentane, mixed radiations. Appoximately tissue
n-hexane o r equivalent. Long time period required
iso-octane as the to accumulate results. Requires l a r g e
liquid dielectric. polarizing voltages.
 Table 9. (Continued).
Sensitivity o r Energy range
Detector Description working range response Comments References

P l a s t i c phosphor Plastic phosphor >20 p r e m / h r 0.4 MeV t o Instrument used with a multichannel analyzer WI52, WI57
scintillation sandwiched between 14 MeV f o r the m e a s u r e m e n t of absolute proton
counter two s l a b s of poly- recoil t i s s u e dose in a i r from fast neutrons.
vinyltoluene. Lightweight and s m a l l size. Suitable f o r
Pulse counter. radiobiological r e s e a r c h but analysis o r
r e s u l t s i s complex. Nondirectional response.
Moderate gamma sensitivity. .
Fission track F i s s i o n threshold > 10 p r e m t h e r m a l to Method is completely insensitive t o g a m m a , BE66B, PR68
detectors detectors mounted (thermal 10 MeV r a y s . By choice of suitable fissionable
on plastic, m i c a neutrons) m a t e r i a l s will yield approximate spectrum.
o r glass. T r a c k s Potentially suitable f o r radiological
a r e observed by protection monitoring. Simple readout.
selective etching. Longterm stability.
Threshold Threshold detector >I00 r e m low MeV Accuracy f o r fission s p e c t r a f15q0 limited by HU56, RE58B,
detectors foils of 2 3 9 ~ ~ 1 , range finite threshold slope. G r o s s uncertainty MG62, R 0 6 5
2 3 7 ~ p ,2 3 8 ~ ,and where neutrons of energies g r e e t e r than
3 2 a~r e used f o r s e v e r a l MeV a r e present. Suitable f o r
f a s t neutron fluence criticality and high dose r a t e s . Negligible
m e a s u r e m e n t above gamma response.
respective thresholds.
Gold and gold plus
cadmium a r e used
f o r t h e r m a l neutron
measurements.
Solid s t a t e High resolution .lo0 rern/hr For 6 ~ i : Accurate flux and energy measurement. L061, AR64,
spectrometer s p e c t r o m e t r y of 0.7 to Instrument subject t o t h e r m a l neutron DE62 '

reaction products 3.0 MeV interference and to (n, p) and (n,cu) back-
from thin l a y e r s For 3 ~ e : ground in silicon, which can be reduced
of 6 ~ i ( n , aand ) 0.3 to by coincidence techniques. Good gamma
3 ~ e ( np, ) sandwiched 7.0 MeV d i s c r i m ination.
between silicon
diodes. Pulses a r e
summed t o give
energy spectrum.
Nuclear Packaged photographic >20 m r e m 0.5 MeV t o Valid f o r neutron detection over f a s t energy CH54, BE63B,
emulsions emulsions. Recoil 20 MeV range. Subject t o fading l o s s e s due t o HA63, BE66A
proton t r a c k s a r e humidity, temperature, and emulsion
counted per unit type. Not applicable in gamma d o s e s
a r e a of film. >10 r a d because of fogging. Tedious
measurement. Gives permanent r e c o r d .
'

No electronics required.
 REFERENCES

W. Abson and F. Wade, P r o c . I. E . E . 103B, 590 (1956).

W. Abson, P. G. Salmon, and S. Pyrah, P r o c . I . E . E . 105B (22). 349 (1958).
K. W. Allen, D. L. Livesey, and D. H. Wilkinson, "A C o m p a r i s o n of Some
Absolute Methods of M e a s u r i n g F a s t Neutron Flux," in P r o c . Camb. Phil.
Soc. (Cambridge University
- P r e s s , Cambridge, 1950), Pt. 2, vol. 46, p. 339..
D. Alburger., Rev. Sci. I n s t r . -
23, 769 (1952).
W. D. Allen and A. T. G. F e r g u s s o n , ------
J. [Link] 2, 38 (1955). '

-
R. C. Allen, Phys. Rev. 105, 1796 (1957).
W. D. Allen, Neutron Detection (George Newness, Ltd., London, 1960).
W. D. Allen, " F l a t Response c o u n t e r s , " in F a s t Neutron Physics,
J. B. ~ a r i d nand J. L. F o w l e r , E d s . (Interscience, [Link], 1960),
Pt. 1, p. 361.
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11, 32 and 38 (1953). .
T.,. Rosen, "Techniques f o r M e a s u r e m e n t of Neutron crdss Section and
E n e r g y S p e c t r a f o r S o u r c e s Which A r e Continuous in E n e r g y and Time," in
P r o c . Conf. P e a c e f u l U s e s A t o m i c Energy, Geneva, 1955 (United Nations,
New York, 1955), vol. 4, p. 97.
H . H. R o s s i and G. F a i l l a , Nucleoriics -
14 (2), 32 (1956).
B. Rose, A. E . T a y l o r , arld E . Wood, N a t u r e -
181, 1630 (1958).
H. H. R o s s i., "ionization c h a m b e r s in Neutron ~ o s i m e t r y , " in P r o c . IAEA
Conf. o n Neutron ~ o s i r n e t r ~Harwell,
, 1962 (IAEA, Vienna, 1963), vol. 2,

E. R o b e r t s , Jr., Health P h y s . -
11, 255 (1965).
 P. Savel, C. R. H. Acad. Sci. -
234, 2596 (1952).
R. C. S a n g s t e r and J. W. I r v i n e , J. C h e m . P h y s . -
24, 670 (1956).
N. K . S a h a a n d N. Nath, Nucleonics -
1 5 (4), 94 (1957).
J. Schenck, --
N a t u r e 171, 518 (1953).
E. S e g r e , E x p e r i m e n t a l N u c l e a r P h y s i c s ( J o h n Wiley a n d Sons, Inc., New
York, 1953), vol. 2, pt. 6.
S e a g o n d o l l a r , E s c h , a n d ~ a r t w r i g h t ,Rev. ScC. I n s t r . -
25, 689 (1954).
T. H. R. S k y r m e , P. R . Tunnicliffe, and A. G. Ward, Rev. Sci. I n s t r . -
23,
204 (1952).
S. C . Snowdon, P h y s . Rev. -
78, 299 (1950).
A. H. Snell, Ed., N u c l e a r I n s t r u m e n t s and T h e i r U s e s . V o l u m e 1. (John
Wiley a n d Sons, Inc., New York,1969).
R . S. S t o r e y , W. J a c k , and A. Ward, " T h e F l u o r e s c e n t D e c a y of CsI(T1) f o r
P a r t i c l e s of D i f f e r e n t tonization ~ e n s i t y , "in P r o c . P h y s . Soc. (London)
vol. 72, 1 (1958).
-
R. S t e d m a n , Rev. Sci. I n s t r . 31, 1156 (1960).
- (7), 4 6 (1956).
K. H. Sun, P. R . M a l m b e r g , a n d F. A. P e c j a k , Nucleonics 14
A, H. Sullivan a n d J. B a a r l i , A n Ionization C h a m b e r f o r t h e E s t i m a t i o n of
t h e Biological E f f e c t i v e n e s s of Radiation, C e r n , Geneva, S w i t z e r l a n d ,
Rept. 63-17 (1963).
R . K. Swank, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Sci. -
4, 111 (1954).
C. D. S w a r t z , G. Owen, and 0. A m e s , U.S. A t o m i c E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n ,
Rept. NYO-2053 (1 957).
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1 5 (6), 93 (1957).
L. S z i l a r d and T. A. C h a l m e r s , --
N a t u r e 134, 462 (1934).
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74, 373 (1948).
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1 1 ( I ) , 44 (1953).
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93, 1062 (1954).
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(1957).
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10 keV-10 MeV E n e r g y Region with P r o t o n - R e c o i l P r o p o r t i o n a l C o u n t e r s ,
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.J. B. M a r i o n and J. L. F o w l e r , E d s . ( I n t e ~ . s c i e n c e , New York, 1960).
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21, 699
(1950).
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D. H. Wilkinson, R e v . Sci. I n s t r . -
23, 414 (1952).
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11 (2), 101
(1957).
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Harwell, 1962 (IAEA, Vienna, '1963), vol. 2 , p. 397.
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Netherlands, R e p t . RCN-40 (1965).
 APPENDIX A
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE NEUTRON DETECTORS
AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Tables A-1 through A-4 contain a representative l i s t of currently marketed

neutron detectors. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s included in t h e s e tables have been extracted
from specifications of the following manufacturers:
20th Century Electronics Ltd., Centronics Works, England.
(U.S. distributorship: Bailey Instruments, Enc., New J e r s e y )
Eberline Instrument Corporation, Santa F e j New Mexico '

The Harshaw Chemical Company, Cleveland, Ohio

Kaman Nuclear, Colorado. Springs, Colorado
LND, Inc., Oceanside, New York
Ludlum Measurements, Inc., Sweetwater, Texas
N. Wood Counter Laboratory, Inc., Chicago, lllinois
Ortec, Inc., Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Reuter Stokes, Cleveland, 'Ohiu
Texas Nuclear Corp., Austin, T e x a s
Victoreen Instrument Division; Cleveland, Ohio
The tables include only complete detector assemblies. Detector m a t e r i a l s such
a s scintillators, activation and fission foils, thermoluminescent compounds and
emulsions, m o s t of which constitute p r i m a r y components of c e r t a i n types of, detectors,
have not been included.
 Table A-1. Commercially available ionization chambers.
Gas fill
Manufacturer and operating Operating pressure
model o r voltage temperature range
Type s e r i a l number Size r a n g e (V) (OC) (atm) Sensitivity Detection r a n g e
B F 3 filled (96% 1°E?) R e u t e r Stokes 3.25 X 14.5 in. 1000-1400 <300 1 3X A/nv 10l" nv ( t h e r m a l )
uncompensated ioni- (RSN-337) (thermal)
zation c h a m b e r
P o r t a b l e B F 3 filled Ludlum 9.75 X 3.5 X.7 in. 500-2400 - no information t h e r m a l and fast
paraffin m o d e r a t e d {Model 15) neutrons
faet/slow neutron
counter
06910 1°B lined, He Centronics 3.5 in. diam LO00 550 2 2.75 X lo'14 A/nv <7.5 x 1 0 l 0 nv
filled compensated (Type D.C. 12) 31 in. long (thermal) (thermal)
ion'ization c h a m b e r
1°B lined ionization R e u t e r Stokes 1 - 3 in'. diam 800-900 150-200 - 4-35 cps/nv 3 x -
lo4 2;s x 103 nv
5 - 32 in. long (thermal) (thermal)

..
chambers (RSN-17A/326/
330/251/327)
92% 1°B lined, 95% A, R e u t e r Stokes 1 X 36 in. 800 300 1.1 X 1 0 - l 4 A/nv lo4 -
loll
5% N filled ionization (RSN-229A) . (thermal) (thermal)
chamber
10-.14 A/nv. lo4 - l o l l nv
Gamma-compensated R e u t e r Stokes 1 . 5 X 1 4 in. 800 300
92% 1 0 lined,
~ (RSN-234A-MI) (thermal) ( t h e r m a l1
N filled ionization
chamber
10B lined ionization R e u t e r Stokes 3 in. diam 100-1000 150/300 4.4 x 1 0 - l 4 to l o 3 - 1o1O nv
chambers (RSN-15A/304/ -
13 145 in. long 2 X 1 0 - l 3 Alnv
(thermal)
(thermal)
32513321306)
93% 2 3 5 f~i s s i o n R e u t e r Stokes 3 X 13 in. '.: .' 200-800 300 1.5 X 1 0 - l 3 A/nv lo3 -
1010 nv
ionization c h a m b e r (RSN-3 14A) . . .; (thermal) (thermal)
2 3 5 ~
fission ioniza- R e u t e r Stokes 0.25 o r 0.125 i'n. 20-150 <340 ' 3 X 1 0 - l 7 A/nv l o 8 - 1 0 l 4 nv
tion c h a m b e r s (RSN-186s-M2 diarx cable up to (thermal) (thermal)
.and 216s-M5) 200 i t long
~ ~ l i n ' a r i cA
a land LND 1 X 10 in. 500 200 3 decades
. C 0 2 filled f i s s i o n ( S e r i s s 30771)
chamber
13 6 decades t h e r m a l
Cylindrical A!CH4 LND 1 X 8,in. . 200-800 1 count/lO
filled. 23527 o r ( S e r i e s 3077) neuti-ons to (with 23%) o r f a s t
2 3 8 ~ fission c h a m b e r I countfl08 (with 2 3 8 ~ )
neutrons
Miniature 2 3 5 ~ LND 0.25 in. diam 200-500 I cbunt/1013 . T h e r m a l neutron
fission chamber (Series 3075) neutrons to
1 count/l08
neutrons
 Table A-1. (Continued).
Gas fill
Manufacturer and operating Operating pressure
model o r ' voltage temperature range
Type s e r i a l number . Size range (v) ("(2) (ah) Sensitivity ' Detection r a n g e

P a r a l l e l late, P.!CH4 LND 4. -6 in. diam 50-500 - - 1 count/lo3 T h e r m a l neutron

filled &5U fission ( S e r i e s 3000, 0.75 in. thick neutrons t o
chamber 3050) 1 count/1014
neutrons
depending on
specificatic,n
P a r a l l e l plate pulse Centronics 2 - 6 in. diam 250-500
fission c h a m b e r s ( P F C 16A) 0.75 in. thick
(A and 2% N filled)
F i s s i l e coatings in
the form of oxides of
any one of followine
isotopes 2 3 2 ~ h
2 3 3 ~ 3~ ' 5 23fNp,
~. -.
-
2 3 8 ~ .and 2 3 9 ~ ~
93% 2 3 5 ~( ~ form
n of Centron~cs 1 ~nd
. ~am 200-400 550 6.8 lo-' cps/nv 10" nv
U3O8) coated, A fllled, ( P F C 16B) -
4 12 in. long (2 X lo-14 A/nv)
I pulse flsston chamber
lb
lb
I
 Table A - 2 . Commercially available proportional counters.
7

G a s fill .
Ma?ufactu:er and Operating Operating pressure
model o r voltage temperature range
s e r i a l number Size range (V) ("C) (atm) Sensitivity Detection r a n g e
-- -- - - --

BF filled (96% log) N. Wood F r o m 0.25 X 1100-2300

?% depleted B F 3
(11% m o d e l G) 0.25 in. t o
OB) proportional 2 X 3E in.
counter
B F 3 filled proportional Ce.>tronics 1 - 2 in. diam 2400-4000 F r o m -0.01 cps/nv t h e r m a l neutrons
counters to 169 cpsinv
depending on
specifications
M i n i a t u r e enriched Centronic.8 0.25 X 6.75 in. 900-1100 0.015 c p s l n v 3 . 3 X 1 0 3 - 6 X 1 0 6 nv
BQ filled p r o p o r - @ S e r i e s5EB/6) (thermal)
counters
Cylindrical and 0.5 - 2 in. diam 1100-3000
quadrilateral BF3 -
6 52 in. long
filled proportional
counters
B F 3 filled p r o p o r - R a t e r Stokes 1 o r 2 in. diam 2500-3500 -80 to 100 0.7-1.2 1-30 cps/nv - nv
tion ounters :RSN-7-'S/44/ 5 - 14 in. long (depending . (thermal) .. (thermal)
(964?'A) 1775-M7/320-M2/ on s p e c i -
LOBS-MG) fications)
B F 3 filled p r o p o r - H~rshaw 1 o r 2 in. diam - 1700-3400 2-60 c p s b v t h e r m a l neutrons
tronal counter [Model s e r i e s
(ellriched o r de- 8 3 , B6, B12,
pleted B ) and B14)
Ultrasensitive BF3 Hzrshav~ 6 in. d-am 2800
(96% 1 0 ~p)r o p o r - (Model B4-72s) 72 in. long
tional counter . .
..
P o r t a b l e B F 3 propor- Eberline 9 X 4 X 12 in. 1300-1800 3 x to 0.01-lo3 eV and
tional counter wtth (PNC-4) 1 cps/nv from 0.2-18 MeV
cadmium shielded 103 ev-102 eV
paraffin m o d e r a t o r 0.3-1 cps,/nv f r o m
0.2-18 MeV
S p h e r i c a l portable Eberline 9 in. diam Dose r e s p o n s e f r o m . .

BE3 d c s i m e t e r in (PNR-4 and t h e r m a l to 10 MeV

cadrnrum loaded NRD-1)
polyethylene s p h e r e
3 ~ filled
e proportional C~ntronics 1 - 2 in. diam 14-16 cps/nv t h e r m a l neutrons
counter (with 20% 8 - 1 5 in. long (thermal;
Kr)
3 ~ filled
e cylindrical B x a s Nuclear -
1/4 2 in. diam - t h e r m a l neutrons
proportional counters ( S e r i e s 9300 -
4 12 in. long
Texlium)
 Table 2-A. (Continued).
Gas fill
M a n c f a c t u r e r and Operating Operating pressure
model o r voltage temperature range
Type s e r i a l number Size r a n g e (v) ("c) (atm) Sensitivity Detection r a n g e

3 ~ filled
e cylindrical LKD -
0.3 2 in. diam 1000-4800 -5OtolOO 4-20 - t h e r m a l neutrons
and q u a d r i l a t e r a l . 5 - 23 in. long
proportional counters
4
3 ~ filled
e cylindrical Reuter Stokes -
0.3 1 in. diam 2000-3000 <loo-150 4-40 0.1 -.I 9 cps/nv to 5 x L O nv
proportional counters -
5 52 in. long (thermal) (thermal)
3 ~ filled
e cylindrical Harshaw 0.25 - 4 :.n. diam 400-2000 <I75 1-40 - t h e r m a l and f a s t
proportional counters (Series H3.) 1 - 24 in. long neutrons
B 9 9 0 7 ~1°B) lined Centronics 1 in. diam 800 <220 0.5 3 cps/nv 3 t o 3 x lo4 nv
+/COz filled pulsed IPNIZEB) 9 in, long (thermal) (thermal)
proportional counter
R (92% ~ O B )lined Reuter Stokes 1 in. diam 2000 <200 0.26 1 cps/nv i 0 - 2 t o l o 5 nv
A/C% filled propor- (RSN-127A/ 8 in. long (thermal (thermal)
tional c o u n t e r s RSN-250)
9270 'OB lined porpor- Harshaw 1 in. diam 700-2000 ' -40 t o 200 0.26 - -
tional counter (B10-LA and 4 o r 14.5 in.
510-11s) long
B Lined p r o p o r t i o n d Victor een . - - - - - t h e r m a l and f a s t
m counter with 1 in. ( T y p e 488A) neutrons
I thick polyethylene
m o d e r a t o r and
1/32 in. Ca shield
1 . 1 3 0 ~( 9 3 ~ 20 3 5 ~ ) Reuter Stokes 3 X 3 X l in. 300-700 150 1 cps/nv -
103 109 nv
coated, A F H + (RSN-312-M4) (thermal) , (thermal)
. .
filled p r o p o r t ~ o n a l
counter
U (93% 2 3 5 ~ l)i n e d ' ~ ! r ~ R e u t e r Stokes 1 in. diam 200-800 300 1 0.1 cps/nv 10-I -
l o 6 nv
filled proportional (RSN-34A-MI) 8 in. long (thermal) (thermal)
counters
[Link] proton recoil. Centronics 1 - 2 in. diam 1500-4400 <200 1-10
cpY"v
50 10- t o
thermal - i.25 MeV .
. spherical propor- (Model SP2) <6.5 in. long -
tional counter 5 x 10-3 cpslnv
(fast)
H filled proton r e c o i l LND 1.7 in. diam . i500-3200 -50to75 1-4 5X cps/nv f a s t neutrons
s p h e r i c a l counter ( S e r i e s 270 and (fast)
281)
. Hurst-type polyethylene
lined, A/CH filled
,[Link]
(Series 280)
2 in. diam
6.75-21 in.
1400 0-50 5.7 - 0.1 - 15,MeV
proton r e c o t propor- long
tional counter
 Table A-3. C3mmercially available scintillation detectors.
Gas fill
Mznufacturer and Operating pressure
model o r voltage range
Type s e r i a l number Size range (v) (atm) Sensitivity Detection r a n g e
..
ZnS(Ag) loaded c r y a t a l L'udlum 2.25 in. diam 900 - 0.25 cps/nv f a s t neutrons
proton.recoi1 scintilla- (Model 42-2) 7.5 in. long '(5 MeV neutrons)
tion d e t e c t o r
Scintillation p r o b e . Eberline 2 in. diam 900-1200 - - slow o r f a s t neutrons
a s s e m b l y with (Model SPA-2) 8 in. long
different c r y s t a l s :
-Natural B with ZnS(Ag)
-Enriched E with ZnS(Ag)
-96% enriched 6 ~with i ZnS(Ag)
-ZnS(Ag) d i s p e r s e d in c l e a r plastic -. -
ZnS(Ag) dispers'ed Ludlum 2in. diam . 1 cps/nv 1/V f o r t h e r m a l neutrons -
in B g l a s s t h e r m a l (Model 42-1) 7 in. long
scintillation detector
P o r t a b l e polyethylene Kaman 10 in. s p h e r e 5 cp~/~rem/hr t h e r m a l and fast-
moderated, 8 X 4 c m (Model 0-300) 0-14 MeV
, *
I 6Li1 c r y s t a l , scintil-
I@ lation d o s i m e t e r
4
' P o r t a b l e polyethylene Ludlum 12 in. s p h e r e - -1 c p s / m r e m / h r tnermal - 12 MeV
moderated, 4 X 4 cm (Model 42-4)
6Li1 c r y s t a l scintil-
lation d o s i m e t e r
Multiple Bonner s p h e r e Ludlum Spheres r a n g e - - t h e r m a l and f a s t n'eutrons
polyethyl e m o d e r a t e d (Model 42-5) . f r o m 2 t o 12 in.
'3'.
4 X 4 c m LLI c r y s t a l
neutron s p e c t r c m e t e r . t

High p r e s s u r e 3 ~ g ea s LND 1.25 in. diam - 238 - t h e r m a l neutrons

scintillation d e t e c t o r ( S e r i e s 800) 1.5 in. long
intense neutron beam
-
 Table A-4. Commercially available miscellaneous detectors.

Gas fill
Manufacturer and Operating pressure
model o r temperature range
Type serialnumber . Sizerange (OC) (atm) Sensitivity Detection range
s em icon duct or neutron Ortec 1.4 in. diam A 3 ~ a et - .
spectrometer system. (System 5 2 5 ) 4 in. long 5 atm
(Two s u r f a c e b a r r i e r (detector head)
d e t e c t o r s in a face-to-
f a c e o r sandwich
geometry with neutron
sensitive material:
3 ~ o re ' L ~ F )
Self-powered neutron Reuter Stokes 0 . 0 6 2 5 in. diam - -
detectors: 4 in. sensitive
length

..
I
~ e u t r o nthermopile Nuclear Instr u- 0 . 5 in. diam - - 5 X 10'12 mV/nv linear betkeen
03
I m e n t s and Chem- 6 . 5 in. Long 107 and 1012 nv
ical Corp. . -
(Model 3 7 8 2 )
 DISTRIBUTION

L L L Internal Distribution W. H. C h a m b e r s
G. R. Keepin
Roger E. B a t z e l , . L. J , Mullins, Jr.
H. H. B a r s c h a l l M. J. Katz
L o s A l a m o s Scientific
S. Block Laboratory
T . R. C r i t e s L o s Alamos, New Mexico
R. A . daRoza 40 . J. R. B e y s t e r
S . I;. E c c l e s . Science Applications, Inc.
.
. .
,
L a Jolla, California
F. F a i r b r o t h e r
H. C. F o r s b e r g E. J. Wesley
Naval u n d e r s e a C e n t e r
V. E. Hampel San Diego, California
W. Heckrotte
H. Lamonds
R. J. Howerton EWG
D. E. J o n e s Goleta, California .
A: L o r e n z 30
D. S. [Link] E WG-
L a s Vegas, Nevada
D. E. Nielsen
C. T. P r e v o M. T a b e r z a d e r
California Institute of Technology
J. F. Tinney ~ a s a d e n a ,California
J. T. Okada
R. B e l c h e r
N. D. Bailey University of ~ a r y l a n d ,

W. M. McClelland College P a r k , M a r y l a n d
C. L. Teevan J. J . Schmidt
K. C. Bandtel . . Intkrnational Atomic E n e r g y ''
Agency , .
G. F. Dickerson. Vienna, Austrta. . . ,
E. A. P l a t t
M a j o r ~ e n e r a F.
l A. C a m m
M. W. Knapp D. . I. 'Gale'
J. W. Hadley J . G. P o o r
U. S. Atomid E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n
J. -L. McDonnel Washington, D. C.
W. J. Hogan
P. G. IvIcManigal
R. G. Olson E. H. Willis
TID F i l e 30 . Advanced R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t s , Agency
Agency
Arlington, Virginia
E x t e r n a l Distribution
J. W. R v s e a g r e n
S. P e a r l s t e i n Defense Nuclear Agency
H. J. KvuLs Washington, D. C.
Brookhaven National L a b o r a t o r y
IJpton, New Yvrk Technical Information C e n t e r
Oak Ridge
"This report was prcparcd as an accounl ol' work sponsored b y
thc United Stales (;overnmc~il. Neither llie Unilcd Slalcs nor
the Utiiled States Atomic Energy C'wnmission, nor any ol'their
e ~.n p. l ~ y nor
~ . any
~ ~ .o f llicir contr:lcturs, suhcunlr;~clors, or lhcir
cmployccr, ni:~kes any warranty. expros or i~nplic([Link] ;Issurncs
any legal liability or rcsponsibilily for Iltc acuur;[Link]
ur vscfulncss of any inli,rmalion, gpp;iratus, product or pruccss
disclosed. or rcprescnls tliai i l r usc wt,uld not inl'ringc privatcly-
owncd rigl~ts."