SELF EFFICACY

Submitted to
Dr. Kusum Mary George Submitted by
Meghna M S
Rosemary Joshy
Department of psychology
ACTIVITY

00
 CONTENTS
Introduction to self-efficacy
Developmental antecedents of self-efficacy
Measures of self efficacy
Self- efficacy’s influence in life arenas
Collective self-efficacy
Conclusion

01
 CONCEPT OF SELF EFFICACY
The concept was introduced by Albert Bandura in “Self-
Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavior Change”
(Bandura, 1977)
Self-efficacy refers to the belief in one’s ability to accomplish
desired goals (Bandura, 1982; 1997)
Rooted in earlier ideas of personal control and volition,
influenced by thinkers such as Locke, Hume, James, and Ryle
closely tied to achievement motivation, effectance motivation,
and social learning theories
Commonly illustrated by the phrase “I think I can”, symbolizing
confidence in personal capability

02
 DEFINITION OF SELF-EFFICACY

Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as "peoples' beliefs in their

capabilities to produce desired effects by their own actions."
Maddux described self-efficacy as "what I believe I can do with my
skills under certain conditions."
In goal achievement, people consider what needs to be
done(outcome expectencies) and then evaluates whether they are
able to perform those actions(efficacy expectencies)
Research shows that efficacy expectancies are more important
than outcome expectancies in predicting behavior (Maddux, 1991).
Situation-specific self-efficacy is seen as the most critical
cognitive step before a goal-directed action

03
 CHILDHOOD ANTECEDENTS
OF SELF-EFFICACY

Where Does Self-Efficacy Come From?

Self-efficacy is a learned human pattern of thinking rather

than a genetically inherited one.
It begins in infancy and continues throughout the life span.
Self-efficacy is based on the premises of social cognitive
theory, which holds that humans actively shape their lives
rather than passively reacting to environmental forces
(Bandura, 1986; Barone, Maddux, & Snyder, 1997).

04
Social Cognitive Theory is built on three ideas:
Humans have a natural ability to think in symbols and imagine their
experiences, which helps them understand the world.

By watching themselves and comparing their actions to these

mental models, people learn to control and adjust their behavior as
they deal with everyday situations.
our thoughts and the environment constantly influence each other
shaping who we are over time
For children, this means that by understanding cause-and-effect
and seeing how their actions affect the world, they gradually
develop self-efficacy—the belief that they can influence what
happens around them (Maddux, 2002).

05
Bandura (1989a, 1989b, 1977, 1997) proposed that the developmental
antecedents of self-efficacy include:
1. Previous successes - Feeling confident because you’ve done well before.
2. Modeling on others – watching other people who have succeeded in a
given arena and copying their actions.
3. Imagining oneself behaving effectively – visualizing acting effectively to
secure a wanted goal.
4. Undergoing verbal persuasion by powerful, trustworthy, expert, and
attractive other people
5. Arousal and emotion – when physiologically aroused and experiencing
negative emotions, our self-efficacy may be undermined, whereas such
arousal paired with positive emotions heightens the sense of self-
efficacy.

06
 THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF SELF-EFFICACY
The frontal and prefrontal lobes play a key role in goal setting,
planning, and self-efficacy.
These brain areas support problem-solving and future-oriented
thinking
Research shows that self-efficacy is linked to biological
mechanisms underlying coping.
A strong sense of self-efficacy creates feelings of control over
stressful situations.
This sense of control influences the release of neuroendocrines
and catecholamines((neurotransmitters that govern automatic
activities related to stress) ) involved in stress regulation.
Levels of catecholamines reflect an individual’s perceived self-
efficacy.
16
Neuroendocrines and catecholamines
Self-efficacy leads to a sense of control that influences the production of neuroendocrines
and catecholamines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine.
These neurotransmitters regulate autonomic nervous system activity, particularly stress-
related responses like heart rate, blood pressure, and arousal.

Link between catecholamines and felt self-efficacy

Levels of catecholamines have been shown to mirror the degree of perceived self-efficacy.
Higher self-efficacy is associated with more adaptive neurochemical responses, whereas low
self-efficacy is linked to heightened and prolonged stress activation

Together, these neural, neurochemical, and cardiovascular processes help explain how self-
efficacy enhances coping.
By regulating stress responses at a biological level, self-efficacy supports resilience and
sustained goal-directed behavior.
Higher self-efficacy is associated with reduced cardiac reactivity
and lower blood pressure.
A realistic sense of self-efficacy reduces excessive cardiac
reactivity during stress.
Lower blood pressure and moderated heart rate reflect a more
efficient physiological response, reducing wear on the
cardiovascular system

Overall, realistic self-efficacy supports better physiological

regulation and stress coping.
Together, these neural, neurochemical, and cardiovascular
processes help explain how self-efficacy enhances coping.
By regulating stress responses at a biological level, self-efficacy
supports resilience and sustained goal-directed behavior.

17
 MEASUREMENT
Bandura (1977, 1982, 1997) emphasized a situational perspective of self-
efficacy.
Self-efficacy should reflect beliefs about using abilities and skills to
achieve goals in specific tasks, domains, and situations.
According to Bandura (1997), efficacy beliefs vary across activities, task
demands, and situational circumstances.
Situation-specific self-efficacy scales have been developed.
Betz and colleagues created a 25-item Career Decision-Making Self-
Efficacy Scale (Betz, Klein, & Taylor, 1996).
This scale predicts confidence in exploring careers and levels of career
indecision.
Other situation-specific measures include:
Occupational Questionnaire (Teresa, 1991) – assesses mastery of
vocational skills.
07
Coping Self-Efficacy scales (Schwarzer & Renner, 2000).
some researchers proposed dispositional (trait-like) self-efficacy
measures.
Sherer et al. (1982) developed the Self-Efficacy Scale based on the
idea that mastery experiences can generalize across situations.
The Self-Efficacy Scale includes 23 items rated on a 14-point Likert
scale.
Factor analysis revealed two dimensions:
General self-efficacy
Social self-efficacy
The scale shows good internal consistency (α = .71 to .86).

08
Situation-specific self-efficacy measures more strongly predict
outcomes such as:
Lower anxiety
Higher pain tolerance
Better academic performance
Increased political participation
Effective health behaviors (e.g., dental care, smoking, exercise, diet)
Overall, situation-specific self-efficacy scales provide more robust and
consistent predictive power than cross-situational measures.

09
Bandura argues that efficacy beliefs vary across:
realms of activity
levels of task demands within a domain
situational circumstances (Bandura, 1997

[Link] and colleagues developed a 25-item scale measuring confidence in making career
decisions.
This scale has been validated (Betz, Klein, & Taylor, 1996; Betz & Taylor, 2000).
Scores predict:
confidence in examining careers (Blustein, 1989)
actual career indecision (Betz & Klein Voyten, 1997)

2. Self-Efficacy Scale
The Self-Efficacy Scale:
consists of 23 items
uses a 14-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 14 = strongly agree)
includes items reflecting persistence, planning, and task completion
Factor analyses revealed:
one factor for general self-efficacy
one factor for social self-efficacy
Internal consistency reliability ranges from α = .71 to .86
Concurrent validity is supported by positive correlations with:
personal control
ego strength
interpersonal competence
self-esteem (Chen et al., 2001; Sherer et al., 1982)

[Link] et al. (2001) developed an 8-item New General Self-Efficacy Scale.

Scores on this scale generally relate positively to the Sherer et al. Self-Efficacy Scale.
This scale provides another valid measure of cross-situational self-efficacy.
Bandura maintains that efficacy measurement should be carefully tied to specific
performance situations (Bandura, 1995, 1997).
Although cross-situational scales show significant correlations, situation-specific
measures show stronger and more consistent predictions.
HIGHER SELF-EFFICACY MEASURED SITUATIONALLY
PREDICTS:
LOWER ANXIETY
HIGHER PAIN TOLERANCE
BETTER ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
MORE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
EFFECTIVE DENTAL PRACTICES
CONTINUATION IN SMOKING CESSATION TREATMENT
ADOPTION OF EXERCISE AND DIET REGIMES (BANDURA, 1997)
 INFLUENCE IN LIFE ARENAS
Psychological Adjustment
Low self-efficacy is linked with depression, anxiety, and
avoidance behaviors
High self-efficacy helps in coping with eating disorders and
abuse
Acts as a protective factor against psychological problems
Emphasizes a strengths-based and positive psychology
approach
Helps individuals structure environments that promote
success

10
Physical Health
Self-efficacy promotes healthy behaviors and reduces
unhealthy habits
Helps maintain long-term health behavior changes
Central to major health behavior theories (e.g., Health
Belief Model, Protection Motivation Theory)
Influences biological processes related to health
Improves immune functioning and stress management
Enhances pain tolerance through endorphin release

11
Psychotherapy
Self-efficacy is a common factor in effective psychotherapy
Enhances confidence in managing current and future
challenges
Encourages transfer of coping skills across situations

Strategies Used in Psychotherapy to Enhance Self-Efficacy:

[Link] setting and experiencing small, achievable successes
[Link] through role models
[Link] effective behavior (guided imagery)
4. Verbal encouragement and persuasion by therapists
[Link] emotional arousal through relaxation and
mindfulness techniques 12
 COLLECTIVE SELF-EFFICACY
Most self-efficacy research has focused on individuals
Self-efficacy can also function at a collective or group level
Collective self-efficacy refers to shared beliefs about a group’s
ability to work together effectively to achieve common goals
(Maddux, 2002)
Emphasizes cooperation, coordination, and shared responsibility
Research evidence shows positive effects of collective self-
efficacy in:
Classroom performance (Bandura, 1993)
Work teams and organizational settings (Little & Madigan, 1997)

13
Collective self-efficacy supports better group motivation,
persistence, and performance
Expected to gain greater importance with the rise of positive
psychology
Real-life applications can be seen in media and social learning
contexts (e.g., TV heroes influencing behavior)

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Changing Behavior Through TV Heroes

Albert Bandura demonstrated how television and radio serial

dramas based on social learning theory can effectively promote
positive behavioral and social change across cultures. By using
realistic characters, positive and negative role models, and
transitional figures, these programs enhance viewers’ self-efficacy
and motivate changes such as improved literacy, family planning,
women’s empowerment, and HIV/AIDS prevention. The success of
these interventions shows that collective self-efficacy, supported
by engaging storytelling and environmental resources, can help
communities overcome major social problems through
coordinated, culturally sensitive efforts.
15
 RESEARCHES
Research by Bhati & Sethy (2022) showed that self-efficacy significantly
improves students’ academic motivation, persistence, and achievement.
Their study found that classroom strategies such as small successes, peer
modeling, and positive feedback strengthen students’ self-efficacy
beliefs.
The findings highlight the practical value of Bandura’s self-efficacy theory
in enhancing educational outcomes.

Research by Paul Leeming and Justin Harris explored how self-efficacy and
collective efficacy influence student engagement in group-based learning
Their work in Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) showed that while
collective efficacy is a distinct construct, individual self-efficacy better
predicts active participation in collaborative tasks.
The study emphasizes the role of learner motivation, group dynamics, and
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teaching strategies in enhancing both individual confidence and overall
group performance.
 CONCLUSION
Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific tasks; central to
motivation and behavior.
Developmental Antecedents: Begins in childhood; shaped by
experiences, observation, encouragement, and emotions.
Measures of Self-Efficacy: Can be assessed in specific situations or as
general/self-report scales; situation-specific measures predict
outcomes better.
Self-Efficacy’s Influence in Life Arenas: Impacts learning,
psychological adjustment, health, and success in various tasks.
Collective Self-Efficacy: Group-level belief in shared abilities;
influences team performance and cooperative efforts.
Self-efficacy is a learned, influential factor across personal, academic,
and social domains, guiding behavior, motivation, and achievement.

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 REFERENCE
Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (2002). Positive psychology: The
scientific and practical explorations of human strengths.
Sage Publications.

Bhati, K., & Sethy, T. P. (2022). Self-efficacy: Theory to educational practice.

International Journal of Indian Psychology, 10(1), 1123–1128.
[Link]
Optimism
Presented by Feba J S and amarunisa Iqbal
Content
1. Learned Optimism
2. Measures of Learned Optimism
3. What learned optimism predicts
4. Scheier and Carver
5. Optimism
6. Measures of Optimism
7. What optimism predicts
8. Childhood Antecedents
9. Reference
Learned Optimism
• Developed Martin Seligman.
• In the Seligman theory of learned optimism, the optimist uses adaptive causal
attributions to explain negative experiences or events.
• People can be trained to think in more optimistic, resilient ways rather than
remaining stuck in habitual pessimistic patterns.
• Learned optimism involves adopting a positive mindset by challenging negative
beliefs & reframing thoughts.
• is practice reduces vulnerability to depression & enhances overall wellbeing
& resilience.
• e optimist makes external, variable, and speci c attributions for failure-like
events rather than the internal, stable, and global attributions of the pessimist.
 Measures
Assessment Developed by Year Number of Items What it measures?
Attribution Style Christopher Peterson, Amy 1982 48 item uestionnaire Masure an
uestionnaire Samuel, Carl von Baeyer, Lyn Made of 12 individual’s
(ASQ) Y. Abramson, Gerald I. hypothetical events explanatory style
Metalsky and Mertin E. P. followed by 4
Seligman uestions each
Children’s Nadine J. Kaslow, R. L. 1978 48 items Used in children to
Attribution Style Tanenbaum and Martin E. P. CASQ- Shortened version- measure their
uestionnaire Seligman R in 1991 CASQ-R has 24 item explanatory style
(CASQ)
Content Analysis of Christopher Peterson, Bettes 1985 No xed number of Used to derive
Verbal Explanation and Martin E. P. Seligman items ratings of optimism
(CAVE) and pessimism from
written or spoken
words
What Learned Optimism Predicts
e various indices of learned optimism have spawned a large amount of research
with the learned optimistic rather than pessimistic explanatory style associated
with the following:
• Better academic performances (Beard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2010; Peterson & Barrett,
1987; Seligman, 1998)
• Superior athletic performances (Seligman, Nolen-Hoeksema, ornton, &
ornton, 1990)
• More productive work records (Seligman & Schulman, 1986)
• Greater satisfaction in interpersonal relationships (Fincham, 2000)
• Less vulnerability to depression (Abramson et al., 2000)
• Superior physical health (Peterson, 2000)
• Greater life satisfaction (Szcześniak & Soares, 2011)
SCHEIER AND CARVER
• Michael F. Scheier and Charles S. Carver are American psychologists best
known for their work on dispositional optimism, self regulation and health
psychology.
• Charles S. Carver earned his PhD in psychology from the University of Texas at
Austin.
• Michael . Scheier completed hid PhD at the University of Minnesota.
• In their seminal article published in Health Psychology, psychologists Michael
Scheier and Charles Carver (1985) presented their new de nition of optimism.
 Optimism
• Scheier and Carver described optimism as “the stable tendency to believe that rather good things
will happen”.
• ey assumed that when a goal was of su cient value, then the individual would produce an
expectancy about attaining that goal.
• is approach di ered from earlier views that treated optimism as unrealistic thinking or situation
speci c hope.
• Instead, they proposed that optimism is a personality trait that in uences how individuals set goals,
persist in e orts, and cope with di culties.
• In their de nition of optimism, Scheier and Carver purposefully do not emphasize the role of
personal e cacy (beliefs about one’s own ability). Instead, they argued that what strongly predicts
behavior is a person’s outcome expectancies, that is whether the individual expects good or bad
outcomes to occur in his life.
• An individual may hold favorable expectancies for a number of reasons like personal ability, because
the person is lucky, or because others favor him. e result should be an optimistic outlook,
expectations that good things will happen.
 Measures of optimism
• Scheier and Carver introduced the index of optimism, the Life Orientation Test (LOT),
as including positive (“ I am always optimistic about my future”) and negative (“ I rarely
count on good things happening to me”) expectancies.
• A er years of extensive research using the LOT, a criticism arose about its overlap with
neuroticism.
• In response to this concern, Scheier, Carver and Bridges validated a shorter, revised
version of the LOT known as LOT-Revised (LOT-R).
• e LOT-R eliminated items that caused the neuroticism overlap concerns.
• Furthermore, relative to neuroticism, trait anxiety, self mastery, and self esteem,
optimism as measured by the LOT-R have has shown superior capabilities in predicting
various outcome markers related to superior coping.
• For example, higher scores on the LOT-R have related to better recovery in coronary
bypass surgery, dealing more e ectively with AIDS, enduring cancer biopsies more
easily, better adjustment to pregnancy.
 What optimism predicts
• e LOT-R has generated a large amount of research.
• When coping with stressors, optimists appear to take a problem-solving approach and
are more planful than pessimists.
• Optimists tend to use the approach-oriented coping strategies of positive reframing
and seeing the best in situations, whereas pessimists are more avoidant and use denial
tactics.
• Optimists appraise daily stresses in terms of potential growth and tension reduction
more that their pessimistic counterparts do.
• When faced with truly uncontrollable circumstances, optimists tend to accept their
plights, whereas pessimists actively deny their problems and tend to make them worse.
Childhood Antecedents
• Genetic Factor: ere appears to be some genetic component of explanatory
style, with learned optimism scores more highly correlated for monozygotic
than dizygotic twins.
• Parenting Styles: e parents of optimists are portrayed as modeling optimism
for their children, o en by making explanations for negative events that enable
the o spring to continue to feel good about themselves .
• As well as parents who provide safe and coherent family environment promote
the learned optimism in their children.
• Moreover, children who grow up with learned optimism are characterized as
having had parents who understood their failures and generally attributed
• Experiencing childhood traumas (e.g., parental death, abuse, incest, etc.) can
yield pessimism, and parental divorce also may undermine learned optimism.
• Some researchers have noted that children born to parents who live in a lower
socioeconomic status may be exposed to more stress and a greater number of
emotional states.
• Exposure to socioeconomic di culties in childhood predicts lower adult
optimism as well.
• is lower level of optimism appears to be somewhat stable throughout life
even if socioeconomic status becomes higher in adulthood.
• In a study asking college students why they scored high on a scale of
dispositional optimism, participants credited factors such as belief in higher
power, feelings that the world was just, personal privileges and bene ts in life,
and feelings of hope as major reasons with regard to why they were optimistic
overall.
• Many of these types of factors might nd their origin in positive childhood
experiences and bene cial parenting practices, thus giving a bit more evidence
for a positive childhood leading to the development of optimism.
• Environmental Factor: Learned optimism appears to have roots in the
environment.
• School and cultural environments that normalize mistakes as part of learning
and encourage problem solving promote optimistic attributions for setback.
• Television watching is yet another potential source of pessimism. American
children ages 2 to 17 watch an average of almost 25 hours of television per week
(3.5 hours per day
• As but one recent example of pessimism-related behaviors that stem from
children’s television watching, Zimmerman, Glew, Christakis, and Katon (2005)
found that greater amounts of television watched at age 4 were related
signi cantly to higher subse uent likelihoods of those children becoming
bullies.
• For example, shows aimed at “tweens” (i.e., 8- to 12-year-olds), particularly
shows that depict social con ict in middle and high school settings, seem to
create anxiety in their viewers
• is leads to more pessimism experienced by these tweens when thinking about
Reference
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Segerstrom, S. C. (2010). Optimism. Clinical
Psychology Review, 30(7), 879–889.
[Link]
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2014). Dispositional optimism. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 18(6), 293–299.
[Link]
Norton Rose Fulbright. (2025). Learned optimism. Norton Rose Fulbright.
[Link] hub/
learned-optimism
Snyder, C. R., Lopez, S. J., & Pedrotti, J. T. (2015). Positive psychology: e
scienti c and practical explorations of human strengths (3rd ed.). SAGE
THANK YOU
Richard Sanchez
 "To live without hope is to cease to live"
-Fyodor Dostoevsky

HOPE
Presented by Anagha T P and S Bhadra Nair
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
01 What is Hope? 04 Measures of hope

02 Hope theory 05 Hope and well being

03 Childhood antecedents 06 Collective hope

 WHAT IS HOPE?
The expectation that one will have positive experiences or that a
potentially threatening or negative situation will not materialize or
will ultimately result in a favorable state of affairs (APA)

According to Snyder (1994), it is a cognitive process that involves the

belief in one’s ability to create pathways to achieve goals and the
motivation to pursue those pathways. It encompasses three
components: goals, pathways, and agency.
 HOPE THEORY
3 components of Hope theory:
1) Goals
2) Pathways
3) Agency

The interplay between these forms the

basis of Snyder’s Hope Theory. They
work synergistically to create a hopeful
mindset.
 1. GOALS
The desired outcomes or endpoints that individuals strive to achieve
Specific short-term objectives or long-term aspirations
Approach oriented or preventative
Quite easy and others extremely difficult (difficulty of attainment)
Goals provide direction and purpose, acting as a foundation upon
which hopeful thinking is built. Individuals who have clear and
meaningful goals are more likely to experience higher levels of hope
(Snyder et al., 1991).
 2. PATHWAY THINKING
Pathways refer to the perceived strategies or routes that individuals
can take to achieve their goals.
This includes the ability to generate multiple solutions or alternatives
when faced with obstacles. The capacity to identify various pathways
is critical to maintaining hope.
To have positive self talk positive self-talk about finding routes to
desired goals. For example ”I’ll find a way to solve this”.
Pathway thinking enables individuals to be flexible and adaptable in
the pursuit of their goals.
 3. AGENCY THINKING
Agency is the belief in one’s ability to initiate and sustain actions
toward goal achievement. It encompasses self-efficacy, motivation, and
the willingness to take risks.
They will often have energetic personal self-talk statement. For
example “I will keep going”.
Conviction that one can change the course of their life and reach their
goals. A strong sense of agency contributes to resilience, as hopeful
individuals are more likely to take proactive steps to overcome
challenges.
For instance, an individual may set a goal, identify various pathways
and believe in their ability to achieve this goal.
When one component is lacking their sense of hope may decrease.
High hopers have positive emotional sets and a sense of enthusiasm
that stems from their past success in goal pursuits, whereas low hopers
have negative emotional sets and a sense of emotional flatness that
stems from their past failures in goal pursuits.
 CHILDHOOD ANTECEDENTS OF HOPE
No hereditary contributions; a learned cognitive set about goal-
directed thinking.
Pathways and agency thinking is an inherent part of parenting, and
the components of hopeful thought develop by age 2 years.
Pathways thinking reflects basic cause-and-effect learning that the
child acquires from caregivers and others. These pathways are
acquired before agency thinking.
Agency thought reflects the baby’s increasing insights as to the fact
that they are the causal force
 NEUROLOGICAL BASIS
Related to the the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the
behavioral activation system (BAS).
The BIS is thought to be responsive to punishment, and it signals the
organism to stop.
The BAS is governed by rewards, and it sends the message to go
forward.
A behavioral facilitation system (BFS) drives incentive-seeking actions
of organisms
 MEASURES OF HOPE: HOPE SCALE
Snyder developed the Hope Scale, quantitative assessment of Hope in
individuals.
The scale consists of items that evaluate the two main dimensions of
it- agency and pathways.
Respondents rate their agreement with various statements, providing
insights into their hopeful outlook.
The Hope Scale has been widely utilized in research and clinical
settings, contributing to a deeper understanding of hope.
MEASURES OF HOPE: CHILDREN'S HOPE SCALE
Developed by Snyder, Hoza, et aI., (1997) is a six item self-report trait
measure appropriate for children age 8 to 15.
Three item reflect agency thinking and three reflect pathways
thinking.
6-point Likert continuum (1 = None of the time to 6 = All of the
time).
The alphas have been close to .80 across several samples
The CHS has shown convergent validity in terms of its positive
relationships with other indices of strengths.
 MEASURES OF HOPE: STATE HOPE SCALE
Developed by Snyder and colleagues (Snyder, Sympson, et al., 1996)
Six-item self-report scale that taps here-and now goal-directed
thinking.
Three items reflect pathways thinking and three items reflect agency
thinking
The response range is 1 = Definitely false to 8 = Definitely true.
Internal reliabilities are quite high (.90 range). Strong concurrent
validity results also show that SHS scores correlate positively with
state indices of self-esteem and positive affect.
 OTHER MEASURES OF HOPE
The Perceived Hope Scale (PHS; Krafft, Martin-Krumm, &
Fenouillet, 2019) was developed to measure hope as perceived by the
general public in German-speaking populations. This scale was
adapted and translated from the Hope and optimism subscale of the
World Health Organization Quality of Life Spirituality, Religion and
Personal Beliefs Questionnaire.
The Herth Hope Index (HHI; Herth, 1992) assesses hope in adults in
clinical settings. The HHI is a 12-item adapted version of the 30-item
Herth Hope Scale (HHS; Herth 1991)
 Hope and Wellbieng
Research using the Hope Scale shows that high hope predicts:
Academic success : Better grades and higher retention in college.
Sports performance : Superior performance beyond natural athletic ability.
Psychological adjustment : Higher happiness, life satisfaction, and positive
emotions.
Mental health : Better outcomes in psychotherapy and stress coping.
These effects remain significant even after controlling for self-esteem and
optimism.
 Hope as a Therapeutic Factor
Hope is considered a common factor underlying positive change in
psychotherapy.
Increasing hope helps clients:
Set realistic goals
Develop alternative pathways
Maintain motivation despite obstacles
 Collective Hope
Collective hope is an extension of individual hope theory to the group level.
It refers to the shared, goal-directed thinking of a large group of people.
Instead of one individual generating pathways and agency, many people
jointly contribute toward a common goal.
Examples of areas involving collective hope:
Environmental protection
Health insurance reforms
Social justice and governance
Collective hope promotes cooperation and social change.
 How it works
Collective hope becomes active when:
Multiple people join together to pursue a goal.
The goal is too large or complex for a single person to achieve alone.
Just like individual hope, collective hope involves:
Collective agency – shared belief that “we can do this.”
Collective pathways – multiple strategies created by different members
of the group.
 How it works
Collective hope:
1. Encourages cooperation rather than individualism.
[Link] motivation over long periods when progress is slow.
[Link] groups tolerate setbacks without giving up.
It strengthens a sense of:
Belonging
Shared purpose
Social responsibility
 Collective Hope and Social Change

Collective hope acts as a psychological foundation for social movements.

It helps people:
Believe that change is possible
Remain engaged even when immediate results are not visible
Without collective hope:
Groups may experience apathy, helplessness, or disengagement.
 Like Self efficacy
Similar to collective self-efficacy, but more future-oriented.
Collective hope emphasizes:
Goal achievement over time
Multiple routes to success
Emotional endurance in long-term struggles
 Cultural Relevance of Collective Hope
Collective hope aligns well with non-Western and collectivistic cultures.
Cultures that emphasize:
Interdependence
Community
Shared responsibility
May naturally foster stronger collective hope compared to highly
individualistic societies.
 Temporal Orientations (Time Perspective)
a) Past Orientation
Focus on memories and previous relationships.
Can be positive (nostalgia) or negative (rumination, regret).
Excessive past focus may lead to anxiety or depression.
b) Present Orientation : Emphasis on “here and now.”
Can be:
Present-hedonistic – pleasure-seeking and excitement.
Present-fatalistic – feeling lack of control.
Benefits include enjoyment and savoring, but risks include impulsivity
 Temporal Orientations (Time Perspective)
c) Future Orientation
Focus on long-term goals and consequences.
Associated with:
Planning
Self-discipline
Academic and occupational success
Excessive future focus may reduce enjoyment of the present.
 Balanced Time Perspective

Psychological well-being depends on flexibility in shifting between time

perspectives.
A balanced person:
Works when it’s time to work
Plays when it’s time to play
Values memories, present joy, and future goals
Bonniwell & Zimbardo emphasize balance as ideal functioning.
 Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI)
Measures five orientations:
[Link]-Negative
[Link]-Positive
[Link]-Hedonistic
[Link]-Fatalistic
[Link]
Used to understand how individuals allocate attention across time.
Time perspective has a trait-like quality but can change with awareness.
Cultural Perspectives on Time, Hope, and Optimism
Western cultures:
Emphasize future planning, individual achievement, and control.
View time as linear and “monochronic.”
Eastern cultures:
Emphasize harmony, interdependence, and acceptance.
View time as flexible and “polychronic.”
Cultural differences affect how optimism and hope function.
THANK YOU
 REFERENCES

Snyder, C. R., Lopez, S. J., & Pedrotti, J. T. (2011). Positive Psychology: The

Scientific and Practical Explorations of Human Strengths. SAGE.

 STATE OF
FLOW AND
AUTOTELIC
PERSONALITY

Presented by Jazlyn Naushad and Namitha Siby

MINDFULNESS – CONCEPT
• Mindfulness is a flexible state of mind, not a fixed trait
• Defined by openness to novelty and active engagement with the
present
• Emphasized by Ellen Langer
• Involves actively drawing new distinctions rather than relying on
habits
• Contrasts with mindlessness, where behavior is automatic and
routine-driven
• Mindfulness is context-sensitive and perspective-dependent
• Focuses on how we relate to experiences, not mere attention
 FEATURES & EFFECTS
OF MINDFULNESS
Encourages:
• Reduced evaluative judgment
• Openness to uncertainty
• Present-moment awareness
Leads to:
• Greater alertness and psychological well-being
• Increased sense of control and responsibility
Research findings:
• Elderly residents given choice and responsibility showed:
• Higher alertness and happiness
• Lower mortality over 18 months
• Mindfulness promotes adaptive functioning in daily life
 FLOW
• Flow occurs when the demands of a task closely match the individual’s abilities.
• If challenges exceed skills, anxiety results; if skills exceed challenges, boredom occurs.
• Optimal experience lies in maintaining this balance as both skills and challenges increase.

Clear goals
• The individual knows exactly what needs to be done at each moment.
• Goals provide structure and direction, reducing confusion and distraction.
• This clarity helps maintain sustained attention on the task.

Immediate feedback
• Feedback allows individuals to adjust their actions in real time.
• It confirms whether one is progressing toward the goal.
• Feedback does not have to be external; it can be intrinsic (e.g., knowing a move is correct).

Task stretches abilities without overwhelming

• Flow involves growth-oriented engagement.
• Tasks are challenging enough to demand effort but not so difficult as to cause stress.
• This stretching of skills promotes learning and mastery.
MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALY
Mihaly "Mike" Csikszentmihalyi was intrigued by the stories about artists
who lost themselves in their work.

Studied creative processes in 1960s, found that when work on a painting

was going well, the artist persisted disregarding hunger and discomfort,
YET, rapidly lost interest in the artistic creation once it had been
completed

He also noted that forms of play (chess, rock climbing) and work
(performing surgery, landing a plane) often produced similar states of
engagement.

Over the last 30 years, Csikszentmihalyi has interviewed and observed

thousands of people, and his views on the concept of flow guide us in our
discussion of this state of "full-capacity" living that is believed to be
directly linked to optimal development and functioning.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW
Intense concentration on the present task
• Attention is fully focused on the activity at hand.
• Irrelevant thoughts, worries, and distractions fade away.
• This deep concentration allows efficient and high-quality performance.

Merging of action and awareness

• The person no longer consciously thinks about performing the activity.
• Actions feel automatic, smooth, and effortless.
• There is no separation between thinking and doing.

Loss of self-consciousness
• Concern about self, evaluation, or others’ opinions disappears.
• The individual is not preoccupied with success or failure.
• This freedom enhances creativity and spontaneity.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW
Sense of control
• Individuals feel capable of handling the situation effectively.
• There is confidence in responding to challenges as they arise.
• This does not mean control over outcomes, but control over one’s actions.

Altered sense of time

• Time may appear to pass faster or slower than usual.
• People often report being surprised at how much time has passed.
• This distortion reflects deep absorption in the activity.

Intrinsic reward
• The activity is enjoyable in itself, regardless of external rewards.
• Motivation comes from the experience, not from outcomes like grades or praise.
• This intrinsic nature encourages repeated engagement.
MODEL OF FLOW STATE
 MODEL OF FLOW STATE

Based on early interviews by Csikszentmihalyi, he mapped out landscape of

deep flow experiences by graphically representing the relationship between
perceived challenges and skills.

3 regions of momentary experiences:

i) Flow, where challenges and skills matched.
ii) Boredom, where challenges and opportunities were too easy relative to skills.
iii) Anxiety, where demands increasingly exceeded capacities for action.
FLOW, ANXIETY, AND BOREDOM
Flow (High challenge + High skill)
• Represents optimal psychological functioning.
• Individuals feel energized, focused, and fulfilled.
• Performance and enjoyment are maximized.
Anxiety (High challenge + Low skill)
• Occurs when task demands exceed perceived abilities.
• Leads to stress, worry, and fear of failure.
• Can disrupt concentration and motivation.
Boredom or Apathy (Low challenge + Low skill)
• Results from lack of stimulation or meaning.
• Engagement and interest are minimal.
• Often leads to disengagement and poor performance.
Dynamic nature of flow
• Flow is not permanent and must be continually regulated.
• As skills improve, challenges must also increase to maintain flow.
• Individuals can actively modify tasks to re-enter flow.
CONDITIONS OF FLOW
The conditions of flow appear to be remarkably similar across work
settings, play settings, and cultures.

These conditions of flow include:

i) Perceived challenges or opportunities for action that stretch
(neither underutilizing or overwhelming) existing personal skills
Flow occurs when tasks are challenging but manageable
Task should stretch existing skills without overwhelming the individual
Too little challenge → boredom
Too much challenge → anxiety

ii) Clear proximal goals and immediate feedback about progress

Activity has clear, short-term goals
Individual knows what needs to be done at each moment
Immediate feedback allows adjustment of actions
Reduces uncertainty and self-doubt during the activity
BENEFITS AND APPLICATIONS OF
FLOW
Enhanced motivation
• Flow strengthens intrinsic motivation.
• Individuals willingly invest effort without external pressure.
• Encourages persistence even in demanding tasks.
Improved performance and learning
• Deep focus enhances skill acquisition and accuracy.
• Learning becomes enjoyable rather than effortful.
• Flow supports mastery over time.
Academic and occupational relevance
• Students experience flow during meaningful learning activities.
• Professionals experience flow in engaging, well-structured work.
• Leads to higher satisfaction and productivity.
Long-term developmental benefits
• Repeated flow experiences contribute to personal growth.
• Associated with commitment to goals and sustained achievement.
• Flow experiences shape future motivation and career choices.
MEASURING FLOW:FLOW STATE SCALE (FSS)
Flow is empirically measured using the Flow State Scale (FSS), developed by Jackson and Marsh
(1996). The FSS measures flow as a temporary psychological state, experienced during a specific
activity.
It consists of 36 self-report items, rated on a 5-point Likert scale.

The scale assesses core dimensions of flow, including:

[Link] between challenge and skill
[Link] goals and unambiguous feedback
[Link] concentration on the task
[Link] of action and awareness
[Link] of control
[Link] of self-consciousness
[Link] of time
[Link] experience (intrinsic enjoyment)

The Flow State Scale allows researchers to:

• Quantify subjective flow experiences
• Compare flow across tasks, domains, and individuals
• It is widely used in sports, performance, and activity-based research.
 MEANING OF AUTOTELIC
PERSONALITY
The autotelic personality was proposed by Csikszentmihalyi to explain individual differences in the
frequency and quality of flow experiences.
The term autotelic comes from Greek:
• Autos (self)
• Telos (end)
An autotelic individual engages in activities for their own sake, rather than for external rewards such as
money, grades, or praise.
Such individuals are intrinsically motivated and experience enjoyment from the activity itself.
Research identifies common traits associated with the autotelic personality:
• Curiosity and interest in learning
• Persistence in difficult tasks
• Low self-centeredness
Autotelic individuals prefer high-challenge, high-skill situations, which are optimal conditions for
entering flow. As a result, they experience flow more frequently and report lower stress while engaged
in demanding activities.
AUTOTELIC PERSONALITY AND CULTURAL
COMPARISONS (WEST VS EAST)
Most early flow research was conducted in Western cultures, where flow occurs when
challenge and skill are balanced.

In Western samples:
• Flow is most likely when challenge and skill are balanced
• High challenge is often viewed as motivating and positive
• Western individuals tend to:
• Value personal achievement and growth
• Interpret difficult tasks as opportunities for mastery

In these contexts:
• Autotelic traits strongly predict frequent and intense flow experiences
• Flow is associated with positive emotions, well-being, and performance
CULTURAL COMPARISONS IN FLOW – EASTERN
CONTEXTS
Cross-cultural research shows
Flow operates differently in Eastern cultures. Studies of Chinese students in Hong Kong found:
Preference for skill level exceeding challenge.
High-challenge situations were evaluated negatively
These differences are linked to cultural values such as:
1. Prudence
2. Caution
3. Avoidance of excessive risk
Japanese studies found that Flow still occurred under high challenge and high skill conditions
More autotelic Japanese students reported:
• Higher self-esteem
• Lower anxiety
• Better coping strategies
However, Japanese participants experienced flow less frequently than Western samples.
These findings highlight that culture shapes how challenge, skill, and enjoyment are interpreted.
NEUROLOGICAL RESEARCH ON FLOW
AND RESEARCH EVIDENCE
Recent research on flow has increasingly focused on neurological mechanisms to
understand how flow is initiated and sustained.
• Twin studies suggest that flow has a moderate heritable component:
• Identical twins show approximately 0.30 concordance

Indicating that genetics play a role, but do not fully determine flow.
This moderate genetic influence suggests that:
• Flow is not fixed
• It can be nurtured, developed, and enhanced through experience and environment

Neurobiological studies indicate that dopamine release is central to the flow experience:
Dopamine contributes to feelings of
Reward
Motivation
NEUROLOGICAL RESEARCH ON FLOW
AND RESEARCH EVIDENCE
This helps explain why flow is experienced as highly enjoyable and intrinsically
rewarding
Brain regions involved in:
• Attention regulation
• Impulse control
are active during flow states, supporting sustained focus and reduced distraction
These findings suggest that flow arises from the interaction of:
• Reward systems
• Attentional control mechanisms
Although neurological research on flow is still developing, current evidence
highlights that flow is supported by both biological predispositions and experiential
factors, reinforcing the idea that optimal experience can be cultivated.
RECENT RESEARCH EVIDENCE
Gold & Ciorciari (2020): Neuroscience of Flow States

Focus: Neurocognitive mechanisms underlying flow states

Methods reviewed across studies:
fMRI, EEG, fNIRS, psychophysiological measures
Tasks: video games, arithmetic, sports performance, motor learning

Aim: To explain how brain systems shift during optimal performance (flow)

Key Findings & Neurological Changes

1. Reduced activity in prefrontal cortex (PFC)
Especially dorsolateral and medial PFC
Leads to ↓ self-monitoring, ↓ self-consciousness
RECENT RESEARCH EVIDENCE
[Link] from explicit to implicit processing
Cognitive control moves away from conscious rule-based thinking
Greater reliance on automatic, skill-based processing
[Link] activation in basal ganglia & striatum
Regions linked to:
Procedural learning
Automatic motor responses
Dopamine-mediated reward
[Link] dopaminergic activity
Explains intrinsic motivation and autotelic nature of flow

Overall implication
Flow represents a neurocognitive state of efficiency, where unnecessary
executive control is suppressed and performance becomes fluid
FOSTERING FLOW
According to the flow model, flow is fostered when:
• Task challenges are matched to the individual’s skills
• Goals are clear and meaningful
• Feedback is immediate and informative
• Flow requires sustained attention and minimal distraction.

Researchers describe two main ways to foster flow:

1. Shaping activities and environments to make them more conducive to flow
2. Developing personal attentional skills that support absorption
Strategies include:
• Providing autonomy and choice
• Gradually increasing task difficulty
• Structuring work and learning environments to encourage deep engagement

Flow is more likely when individuals identify activities that naturally capture their interest
and invest consistent effort in them.
BENEFITS OF FLOW
Flow provides strong intrinsic rewards, encouraging repeated engagement in activities.

Psychological benefits include:

• Increased motivation and persistence
• Enhanced enjoyment and satisfaction
• Improved emotional well-being
Cognitive and behavioural benefits include:
• Improved skill development over time
• Better coping strategies for stress
• Greater engagement in work and learning
In occupational settings, flow is associated with:
• Higher well-being
• More adaptive on-the-job coping

Flow contributes to a sense of meaning, personal growth, and optimal experience in daily life.
FLOW IN INTERNET GAMING AND ONLINE
ACTIVITIES
Flow has become a key area of study in gaming and internet use.

Online activities such as gaming can produce flow through:

• Deep concentration
• Loss of awareness of time
• Merging of action and awareness
Gamers often report:
• Desire to continue playing despite fatigue
• Strong immersion in the activity
Researchers emphasise that flow in gaming is generally:
• Constructive and beneficial
Concerns arise when:
• Internet engagement becomes compulsive
• Flow-like experiences resemble addiction
• More refined measurement tools are needed to distinguish healthy flow from problematic use.
 FLOW IN SPORTS

Sports offer ideal conditions for flow through:

• Clear goals
• Immediate feedback
• Continuous adjustment of skills to challenges
Athletes experiencing flow report:
• Heightened focus
• Reduced self-consciousness
• Distorted sense of time
Flow in sports is associated with:
• Peak performance
• Enjoyment of the activity itself
• Motivation to continue training and improvement

Sports-related flow highlights the role of embodied engagement and skill mastery.
 REFERENCES
Gold, J., & Ciorciari, J. (2020). A review on the role of the neuroscience of flow states in
the modern world. Behavioral Sciences, 10(9), 137.
[Link]

Jackson, S. A., & Marsh, H. W. (1996). Development and validation of a scale to

measure optimal experience: The Flow State Scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise
Psychology, 18(1), 17–35.

Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (2007). Positive psychology: The scientific and practical
explorations of human strengths. Sage Publications.
THANK
YOU