Language Research 1: Methodology
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Basic Sampling Techniques
Module 005 Basic Sampling Techniques
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Cognitive: Identify the nature, types, and characteristics of sampling in
qualitative research;
2. Affective: Realize the importance of choosing the sampling technique for
language research;
3. Psychomotor: Apply the guidelines in sampling techniques for language
research.
Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting people or organizations from a population of interest so
that by studying the sample, we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from
which they were chosen (Bryman, 2016). Sampling can be explained as a specific principle
used to select members of the population to be included in the study. It may be defined as
measuring a small portion of something and then making a general statement about the
whole thing. (Dudovskiy, 2016)
Why We Need Sampling
Sample refers to a portion or part of the population that is representative of the population
from which it was selected. Researchers normally want to determine things about
populations but do not have data for every person and thing. Here are some advantages of
sampling (Bryman, 2016).
• Sampling makes the possible study of a large, heterogeneous population. It makes
research of any type and size manageable.
• Sampling is for economy. It significantly saves the costs of the research.
• Sampling is for speed. It accelerates the speed of primary data collection.
• Sampling is for accuracy. It provides an opportunity to process the information in a
more efficient way.
• Sampling saves the sources of data from being all consumed.
Note: Sampling methods are divided into two categories: probability and non-probability. In
probability sampling, every member of the population has a known chance of participating in
the study. In non-probability sampling, sampling group members are selected on non-random
manner, therefore not each population member has a chance to participate in the study.
Sampling Concepts
Here are some concepts researchers must know in using a sampling technique:
• element
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It is that unit about which information is collected and which provides the basis of
analysis.
• population
It is the theoretically specific aggregation of the elements.
• study population
It is that aggregation of elements from which the sample is actually selected.
• sample
It refers to elements who are actually selected to participate or to be subject in the
study.
• sampling unit
It is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling.
• sampling frame
It is the actual list of sampling units from which the sample, or some stage of the
sample, is selected.
• observation unit
It is an element or aggregation of elements from which information is collected.
• variable
It is a set of exclusive attributes.
• parameter
It is the summary description of a given variable in a population.
• statistics
It is the summary description of a given variable in a sample.
• sampling error
It is the degree of error of sample statistics when compared with the population
parameter.
• representative sampling
It represents a sample that will be representative of the population from which it is
selected if the aggregate characteristics of the sample closely approximate those same
aggregate characteristics in the population.
• confidence level
It is the degree of confidence that a sample statistic will accurately fall within a certain
interval from the population parameter.
• sampling stratum
It is that group or category of elements from which selection is made in some stage of
sampling. In a single-stage sampling, the sampling stratum is the whole population.
Principles of Sampling
Here are the several principles of sampling (Cresswell, 2015):
• Appraisals that involve sampling are estimates and predictions only.
• Estimates based on sampling are least accurate when the sample is a small proportion
of the whole and when the sample is not representative. Estimations based on
proportionately large samples and on representative samples are most accurate.
• Sampling may be categorical or temporal. It is categorical if the sample is taken
proportionally from categories or groups. It is temporal when the sample is in terms
of time.
Factors to Consider in Determining the Sample Size
There are several factors to be considered (Bryman, 2016):
• Homogeneity of the Population
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Basic Sampling Techniques
The higher the degree of homogeneity of the population, the smaller the sample size
can be utilized.
• Degree of Precision Desired by the Researcher
The larger the sample size, the higher is the precision or accuracy of results.
• Types of Sampling Procedure
Probability sampling utilizes smaller sample sizes than non-probability sampling.
Guidelines for Determining Adequate Sampling
The sample size is usually determined before the conduct of any study. (Cresswell, 2015)
• When the population is more or less homogenous, and only the typical, normal, or
average is desired to be known, a smaller sample is enough.
• When the population is more or less heterogeneous, and only the typical, normal, or
average is desired to be known, a larger sample is needed. However, if only their
differences are desired to be known, a smaller sample is sufficient.
• The size of a sample varies inversely from the size of the population.
• For greater accuracy and reliability of results, a greater sample is desirable.
Guide Questions:
Answer the following to check what you learned from the discussions so far. Check your
answers from the provided answer key at the end of this module. There is no need to submit
your answers to OEd.
1. What is the importance of sampling in language research?
2. What are the factors to consider in choosing a sampling technique?
Basic Sampling Techniques
There are numerous ways of getting a sample:
Probability Sampling Methods
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multi-stage Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling Methods
1. Quota Sampling
2. Purposive Sampling
3. Volunteer Sampling
4. Convenience Sampling
5. Snowball sampling
Probability Sampling Methods
Probability sampling guarantees that the sample chosen is representative of the population.
This ensures that the statistical conclusions will be valid. (StatTrek, 2017)
• Simple Random Sampling
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It is considered the purest form of sampling. It provides equal chances of being picked
for each member of the target population. Simple random sampling refers to a nay
sampling method that has the following properties:
a. The population consists of N objects.
b. The sample consists of n objects.
c. If all possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur, the sampling method
is called simple random sampling.
For example, there are many ways to obtain a simple random sample. One way would
be the lottery method. Each of the N population members is assigned a unique
number. The numbers are placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Then, a blindfolded
researcher selects n numbers. Population members having the selected numbers are
included in the sample (StatTrek, 2017).
This type of sampling is one in which everyone in the population of the inquiry has an
equal chance of being selected to be included in the sample. The main advantage of
this is that it is easy to understand and easy to apply. The main disadvantage is that it
is hard to use with a large population because of the difficulty encountered in writing
the names of the persons involved (Cresswell, 2015).
Fishbowl can also be used for this technique with the following steps (Cresswell,
2015):
- Prepare the sampling frame, the list of the names of all the elements of the
population.
- Write down all the names of the members of the population on strips of paper.
- Place the strips of paper with the listed names in a bowl or container.
- Draw samples as desired.
• Systematic Random Sampling
It creates a list of every member of the population. We randomly select the first
sample element from the first k element on the population list from list. After that, we
select every kth element on the list. (StatTrek, 2017)
For example, the sample will include the participants listed in every 10th from the list.
That means the 10th, 20th , 30th and so on will be selected to become the members of
the sample group. Every possible sample of n elements is not equally likely (StatTrek,
2017).
This is a technique of sampling in which every nth name in a list may be selected to
be included in a sample. The subjects are arranged alphabetically or in a logical
manner (Cresswell, 2015).
• Stratified Random Sampling
It involves the use of “stratum”, or a subset of the target population wherein the
members possess one or more common attributes. With stratified sampling, the
population is divided into groups based on some characteristics. Then, within each
group, a probability sample is selected. In stratified sampling, the groups are called
strata. Examples of strata include mothers, fathers, teachers, etc. Sampling error is
usually lower in stratified sampling than in random sampling (StatTrek, 2017).
For example, suppose the researchers conduct a national survey. The researchers
might divide the population into groups or strata based on geography. Then, within
each stratum, we might randomly select survey respondents (StatTrek, 2017).
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Basic Sampling Techniques
It is used when the population of the inquiry has class stratifications or groupings
either horizontally or vertically.
• Cluster Sampling
With cluster sampling, every member of the population is assigned to one and only
one, group. Each group is called a cluster. A sample of clusters is chosen using a
probability method. Only individuals within sampled clusters are surveyed. Cluster
sampling, the sample includes elements only from sampled clusters (StatTrek,2017).
• Multi-stage Sampling
With multi-stage sampling, we select a sample by using combinations of different
methods. For example, in stage 1, we might use cluster sampling to choose clusters
from a population. Then, in stage 2, we might use simple random sampling to select a
subset of elements from each chosen cluster for the final sample (StatTrek, 2017).
The advantage of multi-stage cluster sampling is its efficiency. Its disadvantage is
its reduced accuracy on account of the fact that in every stage, there is a sampling
error (Cresswell, 2015).
Non-Probability Sampling Methods
In non-probability sampling, the sample is not a proportion of the population, and there is
no system in selecting the sample (StatPac, 2017).
• Quota Sampling
It identifies strata like stratified sampling, but it also uses a convenience sampling
approach as the researcher will be the one to choose the necessary number of
participants per stratum (StatPac, 2017).
For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males
between the age of 45 and 60. In quota sampling, the selection of the sample is non-
random. The problem is that these samples may be biassed because not everyone
gets a chance of selection (StatPac, 2017).
The population is divided into homogenous strata. (Cresswell, 2015)
• Purposive Sampling
It means the researcher selects participants according to the criteria he has set. It is
only used when you are confident enough about the representativeness of the
participant regarding the whole target population (StatTrek, 2017).
For example, a researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high-level
business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population- they would not
all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on
the target group, interviewing whoever is available (StatTrek, 2017).
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This is also called judgmental sampling, wherein subjects are hand-picked.
(Cresswell,2015)
• Volunteer Sampling
It is made up of people who self-select into the survey. Often these folks have a
strong interest in the main topic of the survey.
For example, a noontime show like “It’s Showtime” asks viewers to participate in an
online poll or to vote for the winner in “Tawag ng Tanghalan.” This would be a
volunteer sample. The sample is chosen by the viewers, not by the survey
administrator (StatTrek, 2017).
• Convenience Sampling
It is made up of people who are easy to reach. It is used when there are only a few
available members of the target population who can become the participants in the
survey. (StatTrek, 2017)
For example, a researcher interviews shoppers at a local mall. If the mall were
chosen because it was a convenient site from which to solicit survey participants
and/or because it was close to the researcher’s home or business, this would be a
convenience sample (StatTrek, 2017).
It is also called accidental or incidental sampling. (Cresswell, 2015)
• Snowball Sampling
It is a special non-probability method used when the desired sample characteristics
is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost-prohibitive to locate respondents in
these situations (StatPac,2017).
In a snowball sample, one picks up the sample along the way, analogs to a snowball
accumulating snow. A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest
someone else who might be willing or appropriate for the study. Examples are
truants, drug users, gang members, etc. (StatPac, 2017).
Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional
subjects (StatPac, 2017).
Guide Questions:
Answer the following to check what you learned from the discussions so far. Check your
answers from the provided answer key at the end of this module. There is no need to
submit your answers to OEd.
1. What is a probability sampling technique?
2. What is a non-probability sampling technique?
Considerations in Determining the Sample Size (Bryman, 2016)
1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling distribution of
the mean will approximate the normal curve.
2. When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may serve as the
sample size. This is called universal sampling.
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Basic Sampling Techniques
3. The Slovin’s formula is used to compute for sample size.
Where n= a sample size
N= population size
E= desired margin of error
4. According to Gay (1976), the following are the acceptable sizes for the different types of research:
Descriptive Research 10%-20% may be required
Correlational Research 30 subjects or respondents
Comparative Research 15 subjects/group
Experimental Research 15-30 subjects per group
5. Using Calmorin’s formula
𝑁𝑉 + [𝑆𝑠2 + (1 − 𝑝)]
𝑆𝑠 =
𝑁𝑆𝑒 + [𝑉 2 + 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)]
Where: 𝑆𝑠 = sample size
N = population size
V = standard value (2.58) of 1% level of probability with 0.99 reliability
𝑆𝑒 = sampling error
p= the largest possible proportion
Saturation
Saturation is the point at which no new information or themes emerge from the data.
Saturation can be reached through (StatTrek, 2017):
• one’s sampling frame is too narrow
• one’s analytical perspective is skewed or limited
• the method employed is not resulting in rich, in-depth information
• the researcher is unable to get beyond the surface or status quo with respondents
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Guide Questions:
Answer the following to check what you learned from the discussions so far. Check your answers from
the provided answer key at the end of this module. There is no need to submit your answers to OEd.
1. What is saturation?
2. How does a researcher know that saturation took place in his/her study?
Examples of Sampling Technique
Sample 1
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP FROM THE STUDENT’S PERSPECTIVE
by Jennifer L. Hipp, 2012
A semi-structured qualitative interview was used to conduct research about why students did not
graduate high school. The sample for this study included even adult participants who did not
graduate high school. Participants were chosen based on the criteria of being over 18, not
graduating high school, or receiving a traditional high school diploma.
Non-probability sampling was used to find the participants. Convenience and snowball techniques
were utilized to find participants that did not graduate high school. Participants from this study
were volunteers from the community who responded to copies of a flyer (see Appendix A) that were
posted on community boards in General Education Development (GED) testing sites. Participants
were also gathered through word of mouth by teachers, school social workers, and members of the
community who know of persons over 18 who did not graduate on time.
Sample 2
STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF BULLYING AFTER THE FACT: A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF
COLLEGE STUDENTS’ BULLYING EXPERIENCES IN THEIR K12 SCHOOLING
by William P. Williams, 2008
A variety of sampling procedures is available for qualitative research. In some cases, it is
advantageous to select sampling methods that allow for the identification of a group of individuals
with diverse experiences (Patton, 2002). Some selection procedures produce very heterogenous
samplings that describe central themes that cut across a great deal of variation. Another sampling
strategy involves choosing participants who are information-rich because they are unusual or
special in some way, such as outstanding successes or notable failures. In order to directly address
the research questions, this study sampled those individuals who were information-rich,
specifically criterion sampling.
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Criterion sampling involves reviewing and studying all cases that meet some predetermined
criterion of importance. (Patton, 2002) The criterion for this study was a participant’s experience
with bullying either as a victim, bully, or witness. It is important to identify participants who are
likely to be information-rich because they may reveal major system weaknesses that become
targets of opportunity for program or system improvement. Based upon the literature, it is
abundantly clear that program and system improvement is needed. The results of this study are
expected to aid in setting the course for improvements in schools. Much like a compass aid to lost
individuals, so too this study attempts to provide insight to teachers and the education
community to help reduce bullying by exploring the encounters with the bullying of those who have
directly experienced these painful events.
Sample 3
A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF CHILDREN, YOUNG PEOPLE AND SEXTING
by J. Ringrose, R. Gill, S. Livingstone, and L. Harvey, 2012
The purpose of this small-scale qualitative research was to respond to and enhance our
understandings of the complex nature of sexting and the role of mobile technologies within peer
teen networks. It was designed as a pilot study- to investigate a phenomenon whose nature, scale
, and dimensions were unknown. Thus, the research itself also was small in scale and exploratory
in
nature, and also culturally and geographically specific.
We conducted focus group interviews with 35 young people years 8 and 10 in two inner-city
London schools. At the focus groups, we asked participants to friend us on Facebook with a
research Facebook profile. We then mapped some of their activities online and returned for 22
individual interviews with selected case study young people. We also interviewed key teachers and
staff at the schools.
Sample 4
A STUDY OF HOW FORMER HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS VIEW THE REASONS THEY
DROPPED OUT AND WHY THEY RETURNED
by Cristina Grace Brooks, 2015
The sample consisted of individuals over the age of 24 who are currently enrolled in adult
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education programs and who are students who have previously dropped out of high school.
Answers to the Guide Questions
Sampling
1. What is the importance of sampling in language research?
Sampling makes the possible study of a large, heterogeneous population. It makes
the
research of any type and size manageable.
2. What are the factors to consider in choosing a sampling technique?
The factors to consider are homogeneity of the population, degree of precision and
sampling technique.
Basic Sampling Techniques
1. What is a probability sampling technique?
Probability sampling guarantees that the sample chosen is representative of the
population.
2. What is a non-probability sampling technique?
In non-probability sampling, the sample is not a proportion of the population and
there is no system for selecting the sample.
.
Saturation
1. What is saturation?
Saturation is the point at which no new information or themes emerge from
the data.
2. How does a researcher know that saturation took place in his/her study?
Saturation can be reached through one’s sampling frame is too narrow, one’s
analytical perspective is skewed or limited, the method employed is not resulting
in rich, in-depth information and the researcher is unable to get beyond the surface
or status quo with respondents.
References and Supplementary Materials
Books and Journals
1. Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford university press.
2. Cresswell, J.W. (2015). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Sage Publications, Inc.
3. Del Rosario-Garcia, M., et. al. (2017). Practical Research 1: Basics of Qualitative
Research. Philippines: Fastbooks.
Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. Dudovskiy, J. (2016). Sampling in Primary Data Collection. Retrieved from
[Link]
Language Research 1: Methodology
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Basic Sampling Techniques
2. StatTrek. (2017). Survey Sampling Methods. Retrieved from
[Link]
Online Instructional Videos
1. Simple Learning Pro. (2015). Types of Sampling Methods (4.1). [Video file].Retrieved
from [Link]
2. The Math Sorcerer. (2018). Introduction to Stratified, Cluster, Systematic, and
Convenience Sampling. [Video file]. Retrieved from
[Link]
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