Chapter 16 - Solids | Quick Study Notes

Chapter 16: Solids

Clean A-Level / AKU-style study notes
This document focuses on understanding, graphs, important equations, and exam lines. Long derivations are not
included.

Contents
 16.1 Classification of Solids
 16.2 Mechanical Properties of Solids
 16.3 Electric Properties of Solids
 16.4 Superconductors
 16.5 Magnetic Properties of Solids
 Formula Sheet
 AKU-Style Practice MCQs
 Answer Key

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 Chapter 16 - Solids | Quick Study Notes

16.1 Classification of Solids

A solid has closely packed particles. The main classification depends on how particles are arranged inside the solid.

Type of solid Internal arrangement Melting behavior Examples

Crystalline solid Regular, repeating three- Sharp melting point NaCl, diamond, copper, quartz,
dimensional arrangement; long- ice
range order
Amorphous solid Irregular arrangement; only Softens over a range of Glass, rubber, plastic, wax
short-range order temperature
Polymeric solid Long chain molecules made Usually softens over a range Polyethene, nylon, PVC, rubber
from repeated monomers; may
be amorphous or partly
crystalline

Crystalline Solids
 Particles are arranged in a regular and repeating pattern.
 They have definite geometrical shape and sharp melting point.
 Their properties can be different in different directions; this is called anisotropy.

Lattice and Unit Cell

 Crystal lattice: regular three-dimensional arrangement of points representing particles in a crystal.
 Unit cell: smallest repeating part of a crystal lattice which gives the complete crystal when repeated in three
dimensions.
 Sequence: unit cell repeats -> crystal lattice -> complete crystal.

Amorphous and Polymeric Solids

 Amorphous solids do not have long-range order and are usually isotropic, meaning properties are same in all
directions.
 Polymeric solids consist of very large molecules called polymers; polymers are chains made from monomers.
 Many polymers are semi-crystalline, meaning some regions are ordered while others are random.

Exam line: Crystalline solids have long-range order; amorphous solids have short-range order only.

16.2 Mechanical Properties of Solids

Mechanical properties explain how solids behave when force is applied: stretching, compression, shearing, elastic
recovery, permanent deformation, and breaking.

Stress and Strain

Stress is the internal resisting force per unit area. Strain is the fractional change produced in the dimensions of a body.

Stress = F / A
Longitudinal strain = change in length / original length = Delta L / L
 Stress has unit Pa or N m^-2.
 Strain has no unit because it is a ratio of two similar quantities.
 Stress is the cause; strain is the effect; modulus is resistance to deformation.
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Elastic and Plastic Deformation
Elastic deformation Plastic deformation
Temporary deformation; body returns to original shape after force Permanent deformation; body does not fully return to original
is removed. shape.
Occurs within elastic limit. Occurs after elastic limit is crossed.
Example: slightly stretched spring. Example: bent paper clip or clay pressed by hand.

Moduli of Elasticity
A modulus measures how strongly a material resists deformation. In general:

Modulus = stress / strain

Large modulus means a material is stiff and difficult to deform. Small modulus means it is easier to deform.

Modulus Related deformation Main change Meaning

Young's modulus, Y Stretching or compression Length Resistance to change in length
Shear modulus, G Shearing Shape Resistance to change in shape
Bulk modulus, K Compression from all sides Volume Resistance to change in volume

Young's Modulus
Y = longitudinal stress / longitudinal strain = (F L) / (A Delta L)
Young's modulus is for change in length. A steel wire has high Young's modulus, so it is difficult to stretch. Rubber has low
Young's modulus, so it stretches easily.

Shear Modulus
G = shear stress / shear strain = (F L) / (A x)
Shear modulus is for change in shape. The force is parallel to the surface and produces sideways displacement x. Fluids
have almost zero shear modulus because they cannot resist continuous shear.

Bulk Modulus
K = pressure / volume strain = P / (Delta V / V)
Bulk modulus is for change in volume. Solids and liquids usually have high bulk modulus. Gases have low bulk modulus
because they are easily compressed.

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Force-Extension Graph

 Y-axis is force F and x-axis is extension x.

 This graph describes one particular object, such as a spring or a particular wire.
 Slope of the straight line gives spring constant k: slope = F/x = k.
 Area under the graph gives total strain energy stored in the object.

Strain energy, U = 1/2 F x = 1/2 k x^2

Stress-Strain Graph

 Y-axis is stress and x-axis is strain.

 This graph describes the material itself, not only one specific object.
 Slope of the straight-line elastic part gives Young's modulus.
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 Area under a stress-strain graph gives energy per unit volume.
 The straight region follows Hooke's law: stress is proportional to strain.

Point/Region What it means

Elastic region Material returns to original shape when stress is removed.
Elastic limit Maximum stress up to which complete recovery is possible.
Yield point Plastic deformation begins clearly.
Ultimate tensile strength Maximum stress the material can bear before weakening toward
fracture.
Fracture/breaking point Material breaks.

Force-Extension vs Stress-Strain
Feature Force-extension graph Stress-strain graph
Represents A specific object A material property
Slope gives Spring constant/stiffness k Young's modulus Y
Area gives Total strain energy Energy per unit volume
Depends on size? Yes Mostly no

Two Solved Examples

Example 1: Young's modulus
A wire of length 2 m and cross-sectional area 1.0 x 10^-6 m^2 is stretched by a force of 100 N. Its extension is 1.0 x 10^-3
m. Find Young's modulus.

Y = (F L) / (A Delta L) = (100 x 2) / [(1.0 x 10^-6)(1.0 x 10^-3)]

Y = 2.0 x 10^11 Pa
Meaning: the wire is stiff and difficult to stretch.

Example 2: Shear modulus

A block has area 0.02 m^2 and height 0.10 m. A tangential force of 50 N displaces the top surface sideways by 2.0 x 10^-4
m. Find the shear modulus.

G = (F L) / (A x) = (50 x 0.10) / [0.02 x 2.0 x 10^-4]

G = 1.25 x 10^6 Pa
Meaning: the material resists change in shape, not change in length.

Strict difference: Young's modulus is about change in length. Shear modulus is about change in shape.

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16.3 Electric Properties of Solids

Electrical behavior of solids depends mainly on the availability of mobile charge carriers and the size of the energy band
gap.

Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators

Property Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Conductivity High Intermediate Very low
Free electrons Many Few at room temperature Almost none
Band gap Zero or overlapping bands Small Large
Temperature effect Resistance usually increases Conductivity increases with Remains a poor conductor
with temperature temperature
Examples Copper, silver, aluminium Silicon, germanium Glass, rubber, plastic

Energy Band Theory

 Valence band: energy band containing valence electrons involved in bonding.

 Conduction band: energy band where electrons are free to move and conduct current.
 Forbidden energy gap, Eg: energy gap between valence band and conduction band where electrons cannot exist.
 The forbidden energy gap is not between shells of a single atom. Shells belong to single atoms; bands belong to
solids.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Type Meaning Carriers
Intrinsic semiconductor Pure semiconductor; no impurity added Electrons = holes
Extrinsic semiconductor Doped semiconductor; impurity added to One carrier type becomes majority
increase conductivity

n-type and p-type Semiconductors

Type Impurity added Majority carriers Minority carriers Examples of impurity
n-type Pentavalent impurity Electrons Holes P, As, Sb
p-type Trivalent impurity Holes Electrons B, Al, Ga, In

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Important: An n-type or p-type semiconductor is still electrically neutral overall. The name shows which charge carrier mainly
conducts current.

16.4 Superconductors
A superconductor is a material whose electrical resistance becomes zero below a certain temperature called the critical
temperature.

Below critical temperature Tc: R = 0

Key Properties
 Zero resistance: current flows without heat loss.
 Critical temperature, Tc: temperature below which superconductivity starts.
 Meissner effect: expulsion of magnetic field from the interior of a superconductor.
 Persistent current: current can continue for a very long time because resistance is zero.

Power loss = I^2 R. If R = 0, power loss = 0

Conditions for Superconductivity

 Temperature must be below critical temperature: T < Tc.
 Magnetic field must be below critical magnetic field: B < Bc.
 Current must be below critical current: I < Ic.

Uses
 MRI machines and strong electromagnets.
 Maglev trains due to magnetic levitation.
 Power transmission with very low energy loss.
 Particle accelerators and sensitive magnetic sensors such as SQUIDs.

Strict point: A superconductor is not just a perfect conductor; it also shows the Meissner effect.

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16.5 Magnetic Properties of Solids

Magnetic properties depend on electron spin, orbital motion, paired or unpaired electrons, magnetic dipoles, and
domains.

Magnetic Dipoles and Domain Theory

A magnetic dipole behaves like a tiny magnet with north and south poles. In ferromagnetic solids, many dipoles align in
small regions called domains.

 Magnetic domain: small region inside a ferromagnetic material where many atomic magnetic dipoles are aligned in
the same direction.
 In an unmagnetized ferromagnet, domains point in different directions and cancel each other.
 When an external magnetic field is applied, domains in the field direction grow and rotate, so the material becomes
magnetized.

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic Solids

Property Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
Effect of magnetic field Weakly repelled Weakly attracted Strongly attracted
Electron condition All electrons paired Some unpaired electrons Unpaired electrons with strong
interaction
Dipoles No permanent net dipoles Permanent atomic dipoles, Dipoles form domains
randomly arranged
After field removed No magnetism retained Usually loses magnetism Can retain magnetism
Examples Bismuth, copper, water, glass Aluminium, platinum, oxygen Iron, cobalt, nickel, steel

Ferromagnets as a Special Case of Paramagnets

Both paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances have unpaired electrons and atomic magnetic dipoles. Ferromagnets
are a special strong case because their neighboring dipoles interact strongly and organize into domains.

Paramagnets: dipoles act mostly independently. Ferromagnets: dipoles cooperate and form domains, producing strong
magnetism.

Curie Point
The Curie point is the temperature above which a ferromagnetic material loses its ferromagnetic property and becomes
paramagnetic.

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For iron, the Curie temperature is about 770 degrees C. If iron is heated above this temperature and then cooled, it
becomes ferromagnetic again, but its old magnetization is usually lost unless it is magnetized again.

Soft and Hard Magnetic Substances

Property Soft magnetic substance Hard magnetic substance
Magnetization Easy to magnetize Difficult to magnetize
Demagnetization Easy to demagnetize Difficult to demagnetize
Retentivity Low High
Coercivity Low High
Uses Electromagnets, transformer cores Permanent magnets, speakers
Examples Soft iron, silicon steel Steel, alnico, cobalt steel

Formula Sheet
Concept Equation Meaning
Stress Stress = F / A Force per unit area
Strain Strain = Delta L / L Fractional change in length
Young's modulus Y = (F L) / (A Delta L) Resistance to change in length
Shear modulus G = (F L) / (A x) Resistance to change in shape
Bulk modulus K = P / (Delta V / V) Resistance to change in volume
Hooke's law F = kx Force proportional to extension
Strain energy U = 1/2 F x = 1/2 k x^2 Energy stored by deformation
Energy density 1/2 x stress x strain Energy per unit volume
Power loss P = I^2 R Heat loss in a conductor
Superconductor Below Tc, R = 0 Zero resistance state

AKU-Style Practice MCQs

Choose the single best answer.

1. A crystalline solid differs from an amorphous solid because it has:

 A. no fixed melting point

 B. long-range regular order
 C. no definite shape
 D. only random particle arrangement
 E. zero density

2. The smallest repeating part of a crystal lattice is called:

 A. molecule
 B. unit cell
 C. domain
 D. valence band
 E. polymer

3. The slope of a force-extension graph in the elastic region gives:

 A. Young's modulus
 B. bulk modulus

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 C. spring constant
 D. strain energy
 E. yield strength

4. The area under a force-extension graph represents:

 A. stress
 B. strain
 C. total strain energy
 D. Young's modulus
 E. pressure

5. Young's modulus measures resistance to change in:

 A. volume
 B. shape
 C. length
 D. charge
 E. magnetic field

6. Shear modulus is related mainly to:

 A. change in length
 B. change in shape
 C. change in volume
 D. change in mass
 E. change in charge

7. The forbidden energy gap in a solid lies between:

 A. K and L shells
 B. valence band and conduction band
 C. nucleus and electron
 D. proton and neutron
 E. two domains

8. In an intrinsic semiconductor:

 A. electrons are zero

 B. holes are zero
 C. electrons equal holes
 D. only holes conduct
 E. only impurity atoms conduct

9. In an n-type semiconductor, the majority carriers are:

 A. protons
 B. neutrons
 C. holes
 D. electrons
 E. photons
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10. When a superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature:

 A. resistance increases
 B. resistance becomes zero
 C. it becomes an insulator
 D. it loses all current
 E. it becomes diamagnetic only

11. The Meissner effect is:

 A. emission of electrons
 B. absorption of heat
 C. expulsion of magnetic field from a superconductor
 D. formation of holes
 E. increase in resistance

12. Diamagnetic substances are:

 A. strongly attracted by magnetic field

 B. weakly repelled by magnetic field
 C. always permanent magnets
 D. attracted only after heating
 E. superconductors only

13. Ferromagnetic materials are strongly magnetic mainly because of:

 A. large forbidden gap

 B. free protons
 C. magnetic domains
 D. zero resistance
 E. polymer chains

14. Above its Curie point, iron becomes:

 A. diamagnetic
 B. paramagnetic
 C. superconducting
 D. insulating
 E. crystalline only

15. A hard magnetic material is best used for:

 A. transformer core
 B. permanent magnet
 C. flexible wire
 D. semiconductor diode
 E. superconductor cooling

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Answer Key
1. B, 2. B, 3. C, 4. C, 5. C, 6. B, 7. B, 8. C, 9. D, 10. B, 11. C, 12. B, 13. C, 14. B, 15. B

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