Computer Science Department

Chapter Three
Organization of a Computer System

Computer has visible structure known as architecture. The computer architecture is the
science of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create a computer that
meant functional performance and coast goal. Therefore, computer organization is
grouping the components together to achieve a common objective or goal.

3.1 Computer system

Computer is a data processing machine which consists of interrelated components that
work together as a single unit. The computer system refers to the computer and all the
components interconnected to it. Basically the computer system is categorized into two
components:
 Hardware component
 Software component

3.1.1 Computer Hardware

The computer hardware is the physical part of the computer system, which we can touch,
see and break. It includes electronic devices, which have the potential for performing the
task of solving a problem. The computer hardware is composed of three main
components namely:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Memory unit(Storage devices)
 Input /Output devices

I. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that performs Arithmetic and Logical
operations and controls the operations of the other elements of the system. The CPU
follows the instructions of the software to manipulate data into information. CPU also
called as microprocessor, executes program instructions and performs the computer’s
processing activity.

 It is the part of a computer hardware that executes program instructions.

 Is the result of VLSI technology.
 The CPU is the collection of electronic circuits made up of millions of transistors
placed onto integrated circuits (chip).

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In general the CPU has two major functions

 Performing arithmetic and logical operation and
 Controlling every activity of the computer like:
 Controlling internal and external devices
 Controlling memory usage for storing data and instruction.
 Controlling sequence of operation.
The CPU has three major components
 The Control Unit
 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
 Register
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
Is the component of the CPU which contains the electronic circuitry that executes
arithmetic and logical operations, that underline all computing capabilities and controls
the speed of those operations.

 Arithmetic unit:- perform actual computing and calculations on are the

Fundamental math operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
 Logical unit: - based on the instruction provided to it, perform logical comparison
between data items. The comparison determines whether one information is greater
than, less than or equal to the other. eg, A = B, A > B, A < B, A>=B, A<=B
Control unit
The control unit is like the human brain and it controls all of the activities of the
computer. It directs the entire computer system to carry out every activity. That is, it
regulates the operations of the entire computer system, reads instruction from a memory
and translates it into an activity; and regulates the amount of CPU time that each
operation may consume.
 All computer activities are carried out according to instructions that the control
unit receives.
 The control unit does not actually execute the instructions (just as the brain does
not do the walking or the talking); rather it instructs or directs other processing
elements to do so.
 The control unit tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out a program's
instructions.
 It directs the movement of electronic signals between:
 Main memory and the arithmetic/logic unit
 Main memory and the input and output devices

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Registers
Registers are special high-speed circuitry areas that temporarily hold data, keep track of
instructions, and hold the location & results of operations.
 Are thought of as the CPU’s working memory
 Registers are contained in the processor and hold data to be processed
immediately.
 Data and program instructions are loaded from main memory into the registers
just before processing

II. Memory unit

Computer systems need to store data and instruction internally or external to the system.
There are two categories of memories:
 Primary memory/storage
 Secondary memory/storage

A. Primary memory (Main /Internal Memory)

Main memory is part of the computer that holds data and instruction for processing. It
is an internal storage area which is physically located close to the CPU, to decrease
access time. The CPU interacts closely with memory referring to it both for instructions,
data and information. Memory provides the CPU with a working storage area for
program instructions and data. In general it can be used:
 To hold data and instruction temporarily receiving from input devices and
sending them to output devices during processing
 To store data necessary while execution
 To provide additional space for programs in execution.
 To hold the computers operating system program
 To hold application programs word processing, spreadsheet, etc.

Memory size (storage capacity)

 Data represented as a combination of on or off circuit states (bits), to be stored in

the memory.
 The size of memory is measured by the number of storage locations it contains.
Each storage location or byte has a predetermined capacity
 A byte is the amount of memory required to store one digit, letter or character. A
byte is equal to eight bits. Bytes are generally measured by

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
Kilobyte (KB, k-byte):- although accepted as approximately one thousand,
actually means 2 10 or 1,024

Megabyte (MB. M-byte):- millions of bytes. Accepted as approximately one
million, actually equal 1.048,576 (1.024 X1,024 0r 2 20)

Gigabytes (GB, G-bytes):- billions of bytes. Accepted as approximately one
billion, actually equals 1,073,741,824 (1,024 X1,024X1,024, or 2 30 )
 Terabyte (TB, T-byte):- trillions of bytes. Accepted as approximately one
trillion, actually equals 1,099,511,627,776(1,024X1.024X1,024X1,024 or 2 40)

Main Memory is divided into two:

 Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Random Access Memory (RAM).

A) Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a kind of read only memory which is used to store initial start-up instruction
and routines in BIOS (basic input/output system), which can only read by the CPU, each
time switched on. The contents of ROM are not lost even in case of sudden power failure,
thus making it non-volatile in nature. One important reason that a computer needs ROM
is that it must know what to do when the power is first turned on. ROM is random access
in nature which means the CPU can randomly access the any location with in ROM.
Improvement in technology for constructing flexible ROM comes in various types,
namely, PROM (programmable read only memory), EPROM (electrically programmable
read only memory), EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read only memory).
B) Random-Access Memory (RAM)
A kind of memory that can be instantly changed is called read-write memory or
random-access memory (RAM). RAM can be defined as a block of sequential memory
location, each of which has a unique address determining the location and those locations
containing the data element.
A memory address is a number that indicates a location on the memory chips, just as a
post office box number indicates a slot into which mail is placed. Memory addresses start
at zero and go up to one less than the number of bytes of memory in the computer. This
type of memory is referred to as random-access memory because of its ability to access
earth byte of data directly.
Actually, read-only memory (ROM) is "random access" as well, so the names for the
two types of memory can be misleading. It is best simply to remember that the data in
ROM is permanent while the data in RAM changes constantly (i.e. it is volatile in
nature).

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The electronic circuits used to construct RAM can be classified as dynamic RAM
(DRAM), synchronized dynamic RAM (SDRAM), or static RAM (SRAM). DRAM,
SDRAM, and SRAM all involve different ways of using transistors and capacitors to
store data.
Note: Computers processing speed can be increased by the following factors:-
a. Cache memory
 Cache memory is special form of memory that holds frequently accessed data or
program instructions to improve the computer system's performance.
 A special form of high-speed memory that eliminates the need to move data to
and from main memory repeatedly.
 A cache consists of ultra fast static random-access memory (SRAM) chips, which
rapidly move data to CPU.
 Cache memory acts as a temporary holding/processing cell.
 It is a bridge between a slow device and a fast device.
As data requests pass between the CPU and main memory, they travel through cache
memory and are copied there. Subsequent requests for the same data are recognized and
captured by the cache memory cell. The cache cell then fulfills the data request to the
CPU.
b. Coprocessors
 When certain task is performed again and again, special purpose chips can be
designed to handle it quickly and efficiently.
 These chips, called coprocessor chips are mounted on the processor board and
function simultaneously with the primary processor chip
 By taking a frequently processing work away from the main processor, they free
the central processing unit to focus on general processing needs.
For example, Math coprocessor chips are used frequently by scientist and engineers who
need to do large amount of intensive calculations.
c. Increased chip density and integration
 Chip density is the number of circuits on a single chip.
 Reducing the distance traveled, even a little, makes a tremendous difference in the
computer’s speed.
 This fundamental principle underlies the continual emphasis on miniaturization of
circuits and having greater chip density.

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Other Major System Unit Components

1. The Motherboard:
The motherboard, also called the system board, is the main circuit board in the
system unit. The motherboard acts as a container for the different components in the
system unit:
 Microprocessor
 Any coprocessor chips
 RAM chips
 ROM chips
 Other memory types
 Expansion slots where additional circuit boards (called expansion boards) may be
plugged in.
2. Computer Bus:
The system bus is a metallic conductor through which information travels within a
PC. It links the computer’s main components, CPU, memory, control logic and I/O
devices. In other words, it is simply a pathway through which data travels from one place
to another in side the system unit. A bus that connects CPU, memory, and I/O
components is known as system bus. System bus have three main variations:
a. Data bus
b. Address bus
c. Control bus
a. The data bus: is used to transfer data from memory to CPU or vice versa. In other
words, it is responsible for transferring data between the processor and the slower
main memory. The greater the number of wires, the greater the number of bits you
can send and receive at the same time. The size of a data bus is typically 8, 16, 32, or
64 bits.
b. The Address bus: is a set of wires carrying the addressing information used to
describe the memory location to which the data is being sent or from which the data is
being retrieved. Used to supply the address of a particular location for the CPU, while
reading or writing operation is done by the CPU. For the CPU to read or write data, it
must be able to specify the precise location of the data in system memory. Such
locations are identified through the use of an address bus.
c. The Control bus: carries signal that tell the computer to “read” or “write” data to or
from a given memory address, input device or output device. In other words, it
synchronizes and co-ordinates the operation of a CPU with other devices in the
computer. Controls the access to data and address bus and also used to transfer
commands and timing signals.

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C) Secondary memory (External/Auxiliary memory)

Secondary memories are a kind of memory which are external to the main circuit
board and connected through a cable. They have high capacity than primary memory.
Unlike RAM, is a part of the computer that retain data permanently after the power is
turned off. Unlike ROM, it is possible to write to the secondary storage anytime.
Secondary storage’s can be categorized as:
 Magnetic storage and
 Optical storage
A. Magnetic storage devices
These are storage devices which are made up of iron oxide particle mixed with a
binding agent. They use a magnetic technology to read and write data from and to
the surface of storage area. The most common types of secondary storage are:
 Magnetic tape
 Magnetic disc
 Magnetic tape: - are a kind of storage device which resemble with a video tape (VHS).
Magnetic tape is approximately one - half inch wide is made of magnetized plastic film.
Data are stored on a magnetic tape by running the tape over the electromagnetic
read/write head known as tape dive or streamer, which magnetizes small spots on the
tape. It stores data sequentially. And also the data accessing mechanism is sequential.
So to get to the data you are looking for, a computer must read every record (data)
preceding it, for this reason it has slows access time. It is mostly used as a backup (to
keep data) in different organization.
 Magnetic disk:- These devices store data as charges on a magnetically sensitive
medium such as a disk coated with a fine layer of metallic particles. Magnetic disks
allow to store and access information randomly and overcome the slow access time
commonly found in tape files. The most common magnetic disk includes floppy, flash
and hard disks.
Floppy Disk: is storage medium which is made up of flexible plastic covered with
magnetic material. It uses a floppy drive, which use to write or read data from surface
of floppy. It used to store programs and data for a longer period outside the computer
system. Have low access time and low storage capacity.

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The Hard Disk: it is mass storage media found mostly inside the system unit. It uses
a spinning magnetic platter(s), to store bits.
Hard disks can store enormous amounts of data, but it HAS lower access time than
RAM. But accessing data from hard disk is faster than accessing data from floppy
disk. They also don't lose their content when the power is turned off.
Peripheral device: Any piece of equipment in a computer system that is not actually
inside the computer itself. Other extra parts called peripheral components or devices
include mouse,
rinters, modems, scanners, digital cameras and cards(sound, colour, video) etc... Together
they are often referred to as a personal computer or PC.

B. optical disk/storage:
Optical storage devices use the principle of light (laser technology) to store
information. The data is actually recorded by burning on a tiny hole which is called pitch
to store 0’s/1’s. Optical disks are storage medium from which data is read and written by
lasers. The two common types are:
 CD and
 DVD.
 Compact disk (CD): is a form of data storage device that uses optical material rather
than magnetic material. The term compact disk is used because it use exactly the same
format as the audio compact disc. Have three variation, these are CD-ROM, CD-R and
CD-RW.
 CD-R(CD Recordable, record/write once but read many times).
 CD-RW(CD rewritable, read/write many times).
 CD-ROM(CD read only memory).
 Digital Video Disk (DVD): DVD is a type of optical disc storage technology. A digital
video disc (DVD), also known as digital versatile disk, looks like a CD-ROM disc, but
it can store greater amounts of data. Thus, DVDs are often used to store full-length
movies and other multimedia content that requires large amounts of storage space. It
requires appropriate DVD deriver to read/write this type of media.

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III. Input/ Output Devices

Input/ Output (I/O) devices are the part of the hardware through which the users
communicate with the machine.

A. Input devices
Input device are electro mechanical devices that use to feed information to the
computer. These devices enable a computer user to enter data, commands, and program
instruction into the computer system.
Examples of common input devices include:
 Keyboard
 Pointing devices
 Mice, trackballs, joysticks, and touch pads
 Light pens
 Microphones
 Scanning devices
 Digital cameras
 Optical data reader
Keyboard
Is the most common input device which used to enter data and instruction. It consists a
set of typewriter-like keys that enable one to enter data into a computer. Consists four
types of keys:
 Typing keys: include Letters and numbers
 Function key: found just above the typing key (F1 to F10/F12)
 Special purpose keys: arrow keys, caps lock, delete, insert, home etc.
 Numeric keypad: ( 0 to 9, +,- *, /)
Pointing Devices
Theses use to the screen pointer on the screen. The principal pointing tools used with
microcomputers are the mouse, the trackball, the joystick, and the touch pad, all of which
have variations.
a. Mouse:
Mouse is a hand-operated device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer
on a display screen. It is a small object that can be rolled along a rough flat surface so that
the movement of the device is translated on to a screen pointer.

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Types of mouse
 Mechanical: has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all
directions and mechanical sensors to detect the direction to which the ball is
rolling, and move the screen pointer accordingly.
 Opto-mechanical: same as mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect
motion of the ball.
 Optical- uses a laser to detect the mouse’s movement.

b. Joystick:
A joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle, like a gearshift lever,
mounted on a base with one or two buttons. Joysticks are principally used in video
games, in some computer-aided design systems, and in computerized robot systems.
Special joysticks do exist for people who are unable to use a mouse or trackball.

c. Touch pad:
Touch pads let you control the cursor/pointer with your finger. Touch pads are flat,
rectangular devices that use a very weak electrical field to sense your touch. As you move
your fingertip, the cursor follows the movement. Touch pads most found on many
portable computer keyboards and on a system with a built- in screen sensor.

Scanners
Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your computer. A
scanner 'scans' the image from the top to the bottom, one line at a time and transfers it to
the computer as a series of bits or a [Link] data reader
This includes a different variation of input devices read and input data using light.
One example is Bar code scanners, which used read computer readable code (bar code).

d. microphone
These use to capture and enter voice or sounds in to computer system for processing.
Converts a person’s (speech) input into digital form. Often used in multimedia systems.

B. Output Devices
Are devices which used to convert a machine readable code in to human readable by
processing (converting) in to graphical, alphanumeric, or audiovisual form. In general
they are a kind of peripheral device that enables a computer to communicate (send out)
information to the user. Common types of output devices are:
 Monitor (visual displaying unit)
 Printer
 Speaker etc.

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a. monitor :
A monitor shows information on the screen when you type. This is called
outputting information. When the computer needs more information it will display a
message on the screen, usually through a dialog box. Monitors come in many types and
sizes from the simple monochrome (one colour) screen to full colour screens.
Most desktop computers use a monitor with a cathode tube and most notebooks use a
liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor. Colour graphics and animation are controlled by
graphics card.
b. Printer
Printers are devices used for producing permanent output on paper. Such output is
sometimes referred to as hard copy. Printers can be classified according to their printing
speed, the quality of output produced, & the printing method. Accordingly, they are
classified as:
 Impact
 Non-impact

1. Impact printers:
Use a pin or a hammer that strikes a paper and an inked ribbon to form a character.
Work like a typewriter. There are three types of impact printers:
 dot-matrix printer
 line printer and
 character printers

 Dot matrix printer: printer contains a print head of small pins that strike an inked
ribbon, forming characters or images. In this printer, the characters and images are
formed by wire rods pushed against a ribbon and paper. A careful examination of the
characters shows that each is actually a collection of small dots. These printers are low
cost, and simple. Speed is rated in term of line printed per minute.
 Character printers: Print one character at a time. They can print 30 to 200 characters
per second.
 Line printers: can print a whole line of characters at once rather than a single
character at a time. Print a full line (up to 144 characters) at one time on a continuous
form paper that can be up to 14 inches wide. Most widely used on large computers.

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2. Non-impact printers:
Non-impact printers are faster printers than impact printers. Non-impact printers form
characters and images without direct physical contact between the printing machine and
the paper. They use spry or tonner powder than a ribbon. There are three types of non-
impact printers:
 Ink-jet printer
 thermal printer and
 laser printer

Ink jet printers: use a spray on to a paper to form character and graphics. Ink-jets can
print in color; they are cheaper printers; but they are slower and print in a somewhat
lower resolution than laser printers.
Thermal printer: use heat on a chemically treated paper to form character. The best
example for this is a fax machine.
Laser printers: A laser printer creates images with dots. However, these images are
created on a drum treated with magnetically charged ink-like toner (powder), and then
transferred from drum to paper. Work like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce
resolutions at near-typeset quality; they are fast; they can print in many fonts; color
printing is available in more expensive models.

c. speaker
 This are devises specially used by the computer for providing audio output.

Modem: A modem is used to translate information transferred through telephone lines or

cable. The term stands for modulate and demodulate which changes the signal from
digital, which computers use, to analog, which telephones use and then back again.
Modems are measured by the speed that the information is transferred. The measuring
tool is called the baud rate. Originally modems worked at speeds below 2400 baud but
today analog speeds of 56,000 are common. Cable, wireless or digital subscriber lines
(DSL) modems can transfer information much faster with rates of 300,000 baud and up.

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3.1.2. Computer Software

Software is a generic term given for an organized collection of computer data and
instruction. It is a finite set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a
given job. The set of instruction is also known as programs. Software is a collection of
programs and routines that support the operations of performing a task using a computer.
Software also includes documentations, rules and operational procedures. Software
makes the interface between the user and the electronic components of the computer.
Computer software is classified into two:

 System software and

 Application software

I. System software
System software consists several programs which are directly responsible for controlling,
integrating, and managing the individual hardware component of the computer system.
System software is a generic term for referring to any computer program whose purpose
is to help the user to run the computer and able to make the computer functional. They
usually interact either with the hardware or the application. In general, system software is
classified in to:
 Operating system
 Language software
Operating system
Operating system is the first layer of software loaded in to the computer working
memory. It’s a program that acts as an interface between the user, the computer software
and the hardware resources. It provides a software platform on top of which other
program can run. basic function of the operating system are
 Process management
 Memory management
 Devise management
 File management
 Security management
 User interfacing
 Coordination of communication on the network.

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Language software
Language software is also called as programming software (development software).
Language software enables to develop an application or even the operating system
software. These categories of software enable to write a set of instruction so as to develop
software.

II. Application Software

Is software that is designed to perform tasks for the specific area. It is developed
using language software and includes a set of related programs designed to carry certain
task. It usually called as an application packages as they may include a number of
programs along with operating instruction, documentation and so forth. Depending on
their function or task they are categorized in to the following.
a. Word Processors/ Word processing
 Is a computerized typewriter that permits the electronic creation, editing,
formatting, filing and printing text. Is the most common application of
microcomputers.
Example: WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word
b. Spreadsheet
 is an electronic worksheet display on the VDU, which is manly used for
accounting purpose, such as preparing payroll, financial analysis and other
mathematical calculation.
 You can quickly create a model of a situation on a spreadsheet by entering labels,
numbers & formulas.
Example: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel
c. Database management system.
 Allow you to store information on a computer, retrieve it when you need it and
update it when necessary.
 You can do this with index cards, but database management programs do them
more quickly and easily.
Example: You can store large mailing list, inventory record or billing and collect
information in lists stored in files and manipulate this information, one file at a time, with
database management program.
Example: Dbase IV, FoxPro, and Microsoft Access.

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d. Graphics Software
 Graphics Packaged: are programs that are designed to create pictures and
drawings.
 They are used for engineering design, spatial analysis applications and machine
design.
• Geographic Information System (GIS)
• Adobe Photoshop
• Auto CAD (Computer Assisted Design

e. Virus Protection and Detection software

 Virus Protection are programs that are designed to protect virus from getting on
your disk and to detect if any one already in your disk.
 A computer virus is a program that people intentionally write to destroy
information on the disk without your knowledge or permission.
 A virus gets into your computer by disguising itself as a harmless program such as
a computer game. When you run the program containing the virus, it may search
for your disk and attach itself to other programs. It then spreads itself.

f. Accounting Software
 Programs that designed to automate accounting tasks.

g. Games Software
 Programs that are designed for recreational purposes.

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