Chemistry for Everyone
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonds
Stable Electron Configurations
Fact: Noble gases, such as helium, neon, and argon are inert, they
undergo few if any, chemical reactions.
Theory: The inertness of noble gases results from their electron
structures; each (except helium) has an octet of electrons in its
outermost shell.
Deduction: Elements become less reactive when they alter their
electron structures to that of a noble gas (an octet of valence
electrons.)
• Sodium can lose a valence electron. After doing so, its core electrons
are configured like the noble gas neon.
• Chlorine can gain an electron, and in doing so, its electron structure
becomes like argon.
Lewis Structures
• G. N. Lewis developed a method of visually representing the valence
electrons as dots around the symbol of an atom.
Sodium Reacts with Chlorine
Ionic Compounds
Na+ ions and Cl- have opposite charges and attract each other. The
resulting attraction is an ionic bond.
Ionic compounds are held together by ionic bonds and exist as crystal
lattice.
Atoms and Ions: Distinctively Different
Octet Rule
• In chemical reactions, atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons so
as to have eight valence electrons. This is known as the octet rule.
• Metals lose electrons to take on the electron structure of the
previous noble gas. In doing so, they form positive ions (cations).
• Nonmetals tend to gain electrons to take on the electron structure of
the next noble gas. In doing so, they form negative ions (anions).
Octet Rule
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
The name of a cation is simply the name of the element.
Examples:
Na+ = sodium ion
Mg2+ = magnesium ion
The name of an anion is the root name of the element plus the suffix –
ide.
Examples:
Cl- = chloride ion
O2- = oxide ion
To name binary ionic compounds, simply name the ions.
Metal Ions with Variable Charges
Many transition metals can exhibit more than one ionic charge. Roman
numerals are used to denote the charge of such ions.
Examples:
Fe2+ = iron(II) ion
Fe3+ = iron(III) ion
Cu2+ = copper(II) ion
Cu+ = copper(I) ion
Ionic Compound Practice
• Note: ALL ionic compounds will have a net charge of ZERO
• Note: NEVER indicate the amount of ions in the name of an ionic
compound
• Iron (III) chloride
• CuS
• Al2O3
• Potassium nitride
Covalent Bonds
Many nonmetallic elements react by sharing electrons rather than by
gaining or losing electrons.
When two atoms share a pair of electrons, a covalent bond is formed.
Atoms can share one, two, or three pairs of electrons, forming single,
double, and triple bonds.
Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
• Binary covalent compounds are named by using a
prefix to denote the number of atoms.
• To name a binary covalent compound:
• First name = prefix + name of 1st element
• Note: if the 1st element has only one atom, the prefix mono- is
dropped.
• Second name = prefix + root name of the 2nd element +
suffix –ide
Examples:
SBr4 sulfur tetrabromide
P2O3 diphosphorus trioxide
Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is a measure of an atom’s attraction for the
electrons in a bond.
Polar Covalent Bonds
• When two atoms with differing
electronegativities form a bond, the
bonding electrons are drawn closer to
the atom with the higher electro-
negativity. Such a bond exhibits a
separation of charge and is called a polar
covalent bond.
• Bond polarity can be represented on a
Lewis structure with either the partial
symbol or with the arrow
Bond Polarity
• The difference in electronegativity Δ EN Type of
between two bonded atoms can be used Bond
to determine the type of bond. Use the
adjacent table as a rule of thumb. < 0.5 Nonpolar
covalent
Between Polar
0.5 and 2.1 covalent
Greater Ionic
than 2.1
Polyatomic Ions
• Polyatomic ions are groups
of covalently bonded atoms
with a charge.
Formulas with Polyatomic Ions
• When writing formulas for compounds containing polyatomic ions, it
may be necessary to use parentheses to denote the proper number
of the ions.
• When naming compounds with polyatomic ions, simply name the
ions in order. This is identical to binary ionic compound
nomenclature.
Example: calcium nitrate
Ca2+ NO3-
Ca(NO3)2
Naming Practice
• Name the following compounds:
NaHCO3, MgSO4,
KOH CuCl2,
Fe2O3, NH4Cl
• Write the chemical formula for the following:
• Aluminum carbonate Sodium cyanide
Steps for Sketching Lewis Structures
1. Count valence electrons.
2. Sketch a skeletal structure.
3. Place electrons as lone pairs around outer atoms to fulfill the octet
rule.
4. Subtract the electrons used so far from the total number of valence
electrons. Place any remaining electrons around the central atom.
5. If the central atom lacks an octet, move one or more lone pairs
from an outer atom to a double or triple bond to complete an
octet.
Lewis Structure Practice
• HCN (atoms are connected in this order)
• NF3
Odd Electron Molecules: Free Radicals
• An atom or molecule with an unpaired electron is known as a free
radical.
Examples include:
NO NO2 ClO2
• Free radicals are usually unstable and highly reactive.
• Capable of damaging DNA, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids in the
body.
• Antioxidants can stabilize free radicals.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• CFCs are nontoxic, nonflammable, inexpensive, and widely available.
• Used in the air conditioning industry.
• Can be broken apart by UVC radiation in the upper atmosphere.
• Results in ozone destruction.
Molecular Geometry: the VESPR Theory
• The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory predicts the
shape of molecules and polyatomic ions based on repulsions of
electron pairs on central atoms.
Polar Molecules
In order for a molecule to be polar, two conditions must be met:
1. It must have polar bonds.
• ∆EN between 0.5 and 2.1
2. The molecule has different groups around the central atom.
• A group: an atom or a lone pair of electrons
Intermolecular Forces
• Forces between molecules
• Ionic bonds
• Hydrogen bonds
• Dipole-dipole interaction
• Dispersion forces
• These forces affect the boiling point and melting point of pure
substances.
• The stronger the intermolecular force, the higher the m.p. and b.p.
Unique Properties of Water
• Water is a polar molecule with polar bonds.
• Water has an anomalously high boiling point (100 °C); liquids with
similar molecular structures such as hydrogen sulfide, H2S, have much
lower boiling points.
• When water freezes, it expands. Most other liquids contract when
they solidify.
Hydrogen Bonding
• The high boiling point of water is the result
of hydrogen bonding.
• Due to hydrogen bonding, the structure of
ice is porous. This results in a lower density
for solid water than its liquid state.