MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

WELDING PROCESSES
CONTENTS
Welding classification
Gas Welding-Electric Arc Welding- Resistance Welding -TIG-
MIG-SAW-Friction- Thermit-Ultrasonic-Explosive- Diffusion
bonding- Laser Beam and Electron beam welding
Welding defects
Testing of welded joints.
Welding
Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more
parts are fused together by means of heat, pressure or
both forming a join as the parts cool.
Applications
1. Aircraft Construction
2 Automobile Construction
3. Bridges
4. Buildings
5. Pressure vessels and tanks
6. Storage tanks
7 Rail Road Equipment
8. Piping and Pipelines
9. Ships
10. Machine tool frames and cutting tools
Advantages of Welding
1. A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined
by welding.
2. Welding can join workpieces through spots, as continuous pressure tight
seams, end-to end and in a number of other configurations.
3. A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
4. Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
5. General welding equipment is not very costly.
6. Portable welding equipments are available.
7. Welding results in a good saving of material and reduced labour content
of production.
8. Low manufacturing costs.
9. Welding is also used as a method for repairing broken, worn or defective
metal parts.
Disadvantages of Welding

1. Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces.

2. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.

3. For producing a good welding job, a skilled worker is a must.

4. Welding heat produces metallurgical changes.

5. The structure of the welded joint is not same as that of parent metal.

6. Jigs and fixtures are generally required to hold and position the parts to be welded.

7. A welded joint, for many reasons, needs stress-relief heat treatment.

❖ Welding produces a solid connection between two pieces, called a WELD
JOINT.

❖ A weld joint is the junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have been
joined by welding.

WELD JOINTS
TYPES OF
TYPES OF WELDS
JOINTS
FIVE BASIC TYPES OF JOINTS: (A) BUTT, (B) CORNER, (C) LAP, (D) TEE, AND (E) EDGE.
GROOVE WELDS

a) Square groove weld, one side

b) Single bevel groove weld
c) Single V-groove weld
d) Single U-groove weld
e) Single J-groove weld
f) Double V-groove

Dashed lines show the original part edges.

Various forms of fillet welds:

(a) Inside single fillet corner joint

(b) Outside single fillet corner joint
(c) Double fillet lap joint
(d) Double fillet tee joint

Dashed lines show the original part edges.

Plug welds and slot welds are used for attaching flat plates

(a) Plug weld (b) slot weld

• Spot welds and seam welds, used for lap joints
• A spot weld is a small fused section between the surfaces of two sheets
• Multiple spot welds are typically required to join the parts.
• It is most closely associated with resistance welding.
• A seam weld is similar to a spot weld except it consists of a more or less
continuously fused section between the two sheets or plates.
• A flange weld is made on the edges of two (or more) parts, usually sheet metal or thin
plate, at least one of the parts being flanged.
• A surfacing weld is not used to join parts, but rather to deposit filler metal onto the
surface of a base part in one or more weld beads.
• The weld beads can be made in a series of overlapping parallel passes, thereby covering
large areas of the base part. The purpose is to increase the thickness of the plate or to
provide a protective coating on the surface.
 Acetylene gas welding
• In this process oxygen and acetylene gas is used for welding process.
• It rises the temperature of metal above melting point.
• Filler material is used for joining.
• Operation
• In this process oxygen and acetylene is used for the welding.
• Oxygen supports the combustion and acetylene gas generate high temp.
• Operation starts with placing the part togather which is to be join.
• Oxiacetylene flame heat the metal temp produced is about 3200°c.
• Filler metal is added to the join which join the parts by melting it self.
• filler material is copper coated steel, carbon steel.
• chemical reaction at tip is as followed.
• 2C²H²+5O²→4CO²+2H²O
Types of flames
• Natural flame.
1. All gas is burn
2. gives 100% heat.
3. Ideal flame used in gas welding.
• Reducing flame.
1. It consist of inner core intermediate feather and outer flame.
2. It is also called as carburising flame.
3. strong reduction in higher zone due to high amount of acetylene .
• Oxidizing flame.
1. It contain more oxygen than any other flame.
2. This is used for oxidizing metal like brass,Zink etc.
3. It is similar to natural flame.

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
THERMIT WELDING
 1. Also known as thermite or exothermic welding.
2. thermit welding involves mixing a metal powder with a metal oxide, and using a high-temperature ignition
source to cause an oxidation–reduction reaction.
3. A common arrangement in this process is to use iron oxide (rust) powder in combination with aluminum
powder
4. During ignition, magnesium will fuse, which will result in chemical reaction forms aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
and iron.
5. Temperatures can reach 2500◦C, melting the iron which subsequently flows into a pouring basin.
6. Further it into a mold placed around the parts to be welded. T
7. he aluminum oxide floats to the slag basin because of its lower density.
8. The features of a thermit welding mold are very similar to a casting mold
9. A heating port is present, a feature that allows insertion of an oxyacetylene torch to preheat the workpieces
and prevent weld cracks
10. Several combinations of powder and oxide can be used in thermit welding, but aluminum powder combined
with iron oxide is the most common, because of the widespread use of thermit welding for joining railroad
rails.
11. Some copper and magnesium oxides are often added to improve flammability.
12. Other applications of thermit welding include the welding of large-diameter copper conductors using copper
oxide and field repair of large equipment, such as locomotive axle frames.
 Carbon arc welding
• It is new welding process.
• Electric is made of carbon.
• Electrics are soft and not suitable for high temp.
• Electric consumption slowly & requires filler material.
• Arc is generated between electrode and w/p.
• DC supply is used Electrode is negative & w/p is positive.
• It is used for thick material.
Shielded metal arc welding
• In this electric arc is used for the welding purpose.
• flux coated electrode is used for the welding.
• flux gives stability to protection to weld metal.
• during welding electrode is melt and serve as filler material.
• flux over the electrode is also get melt to form coating over the weld material. Advantages.
• Simple process.
• welding equipments are portable and less costly.
• Metal and alloy can be welded.
• Applicable in any position.
• Disadvantages.
• Automatic welding is difficult because of short electrode.
• Process is slow.
• Welding defects are more during replacement of electrode.
Electric Arc Welding -- Polarity Welding Processes

SMAW - DC Polarity

Straight Reverse
Polarity
(– Polarity
(+
) )
(+ (–
)
Shallow
)
Deeper weld
penetration
(thin penetration
metal)

AC - Gives pulsing
arc
- used for welding thick
sections
 Metal inert gas welding (MIG)
• It is also known as Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).
• In this process weld joint is produced by heating the metal with electric arc.
• The filling wire is continuously feed from wire reel at constant rate.
• wire is feed though the rollers at constant rate.
• Instead of flux inert gas is supplied through welding torch.
• welding torch is connected to cylinder of unwary gas like argon
• Advantages.
• No slag inclusion.
• Continuous feed makes process faster.
• Less skilled operator is required.
• thick sheets can be welded.
•
METAL INERT-GAS (MIG) WELDING
GAS METAL-ARC WELDING (GMAW)
• Disadvantages.
• Process is complicated.
• setup is complicated.
• Initial cost is high..
• Applications.
• For welding of commercial
• metals like Nickel,killed steel.
METAL INERT-GAS (MIG) WELDING
 Tungsten inert gas welding(TIG)
• It is also called as gas tungsten arc welding.
• inert gas is act as shield and keep contaminant away from welded metal.
• Electrod does not melt during [Link] is non consumable electrod.
• filler material added separately.
• Inert gas used is argon.
• Advantages.
• Slag free operation due to absence of flux.
• different materials can be welded.
• no cleaning requires.
• Disadvantages.
• Equipment cost is high.
• slow process.
• Filler material requires
TIG (TUNGSTEN INERT GAS) Welding
GAS TUNGSTEN-ARC WELDING (GTAW)
TIG (TUNGSTEN INERT GAS) Welding
SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING (SAW)
SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING (SAW)
RESISTANCE WELDING
 Resistance welding
• In these process heat and pressure is applied on joint.
• No additional filler or flux material required.
• joint is obtained by means of electrical resistance.
• During process heavy current about 15000A is passed over joint with limited
area for short time.
• Heavy current heat joint up to plastic state.
• due to high pressure metal get fused and forms joint.
• Heat generated is given as bellow H= CI2Rt
• It is classified as
1. Spot Welding
2. Seam Welding
3. Projection welding
4. Upset Welding

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)

FIGURE (a) Sequence of events in

resistance spot welding of a lap
joint. (b) Cross section of a spot
weld, showing the weld nugget
and the indentation of the
electrode on the sheet surfaces.
Spot Welding

• It is first type of resistance welding and widely used for lap joint of thin metal sheet.
• It is consist of two electrodes in which bottom electrode is fixed and upper is used for apply
pressure.
• Sheets to be weld are kept in the two electrode .
• The pressure is applied over the sheets and current is passed though it so that they
get weld.
• Welding is done due to high current is passed through the metal plates which produce heat.
• Applications
• For mass production.
• For Ferrous and Non ferrous metals.
• Used to weld sheets of 10mm thick
Seam Welding

• It is used for special purpose

• In this process disk type electrodes are used.
• It is used to produce continuous type of welding between two sheets.
• Disk are made up of cupper and current is applied through it
• Current is applied in pulse form with proper time interval
• Disks are rotate continuously so that metal sheets moves forward.
• Current can be regulated by timer to produce continuous seam.
• Applications.
• For gas or water tight joints
• To manufacture seam welded pipes
 Projection Welding
• It is modification of spot welding.
• In this type one of the sheet is provided with projections and other is plane.
• These projections are in circular form.
• There diameter is equal to thickness of plate.
• Current and pressure is get concentrated at projection areas during process.
• During this process sheets to welded are kept between electrodes which made of cupper .
• Pressure is applied by upper
movable electrode and lower
is fixed .
• By passing current these
projections are get melted and
welding is done.

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 SOLID-STATE WELDING

Ultrasonic Friction Resistance Explosion Diffusion

Welding Welding Welding Welding Bonding
ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW)
ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW)
 Ultrasonic welding is a solid-state joining process that uses high-frequency
ultrasonic vibrations (typically 20–40 kHz) applied under pressure to join two
materials.
• Heat is generated through friction and molecular vibration, not by melting with
flame or electricity.
• Commonly used for plastics, thin metals, and dissimilar materials.

The workpieces are clamped together.

An ultrasonic horn (sonotrode) delivers high-frequency mechanical vibrations.
Vibrations create friction at the interface → localized heating.
Material softens (plastics) or undergoes diffusion (metals).
Pressure consolidates the joint → strong weld without extra material.
FRICTION WELDING (FRW)
FRICTION WELDING (FRW)
FRICTION WELDING (FRW)
ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING (EBW)
ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING (EBW)
LASER-BEAM WELDING (LBW)
LASER-BEAM WELDING (LBW)
RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)
EXPLOSION WELDING (EXW)
EXPLOSION WELDING (EXW)
DIFFUSION WELDING (DFW)
DIFFUSION WELDING (DFW)
WELDING DEFECTS
[Link]

1. Slag Inclusions
2. Porosity
3. Undercut
4. Weld Crack
5. Incomplete Fusion
6. Incomplete Penetration
7. Spatter
WELDING DEFECTS
Weld Testing Methods: Destructive & Non-Destructive
[Link]
NUMERICAL ASSOCIATED WITH WELDING
Problem 1
A heat source transfers 3000 W to the surface of a metal part.
The heat impinges the surface in a circular area, with
intensities varying inside the circle. The distribution is as
follows: 70% of the power is transferred within a circle of
diameter = 5 mm, and 90% is transferred within a concentric
circle of diameter = 12 mm. What are the power densities in
(a) the 5 mm diameter inner circle
(b) the 12 mm-diameter ring that lies around the inner circle.
The quantity of heat required to melt a given volume of metal depends on
1. Volumetric specific heat
2. Melting point of the metal
3. Metal’s heat of fusion
❑ The first mechanism involves the transfer of heat between the
heat source and the surface of the work. This process has a certain
heat transfer factor f1, defined as the ratio of the actual heat
received by the workpiece divided by the total heat generated at
the source.

❑ The second mechanism involves the conduction of heat away

from the weld area to be dissipated throughout the work metal,
so that only a portion of the heat transferred to the surface is
available for melting. This melting factor f2 is the proportion of
heat received at the work surface that can be used for melting.
❑ In all arc-welding processes, power to drive the operation is the product of the
current I and the voltage E.
❑ This power is converted into heat, but not all of the heat is transferred to the
surface of the work. convection, conduction, radiation, and spatter account for
losses that reduce the amount of usable heat.
❑ The effect of the losses is expressed by the heat transfer factor f1.
❑ Some representative values of f1 for several AW processes are given in Table below.
Problem 2
The power source in a particular welding setup
generates 3500 W that can be transferred to the work
surface with a heat transfer factor of 0.7. The metal to
be welded was low carbon steel, whose melting
temperature is 1760K. The melting factor of the
operation was 0.5. A continuous fillet weld was be
2
made with a cross-sectional area of 20 mm . Determine
the travel speed at which the welding operation was
accomplished.
Problem 3
A gas tungsten arc-welding operation is
performed at a current of 300 A and voltage of
20 V. The melting factor f2 is 0.5, and the unit
melting energy for the metal Um is 10 J/mm3.
Determine (a) power in the operation, (b) rate
of heat generation at the weld, and (c) volume
rate of metal welded. Take f1 = 0.7.
Problem 4
A resistance spot-welding operation is performed on two
pieces of 1.5-mm-thick sheet steel using 12000 A for a 0.20
s duration. The electrodes are 6 mm in diameter at the
contacting surfaces. Resistance is assumed to be 0.0001
ohms, and the resulting weld nugget is 6 mm in diameter
and 2.5 mm thick. The unit melting energy for the metal Um
is 12.0 J/mm3. What portion of the heat generated was used
to form the weld nugget, and what portion was dissipated
into the work metal, electrodes, and surrounding air.
❑ The remaining heat, 2880 - 848 = 2032 J (70.6% of the total), is
lost into the work metal, electrodes, and surrounding air.
❑ In effect, this loss represents the combined effect of the heat
transfer factor f1 and the melting factor f2
Problem 5
3
An oxyacetylene torch supplies 0.3 m of acetylene per hour and
an equal volume rate of oxygen for an OAW operation on 4.5-mm-
thick steel. Heat generated by combustion is transferred to the
work surface with a heat transfer factor f1 is 0.20. If 75% of the
heat from the flame is concentrated in a circular area on the work
surface that is 9.0 mm in diameter, find (a) rate of heat liberated
during combustion, (b) rate of heat transferred to the work
surface, and (c) average power density in the circular area. Take
heat of combustion for acetylene as 55x106J/m3.
Problem 6
A GTAW operation is performed on low carbon steel, whose unit
melting energy is 10.3 J/mm3. The welding voltage is 22 volts and
the current is 135 amps. The heat transfer factor is 0.7 and the
melting factor is 0.65. If filler metal wire of 3.5 mm diameter is
added to the operation, the final weld bead is composed of 60%
volume of filler and 40% volume base metal. If the travel speed in
the operation is 5 mm/sec, determine (a) cross-sectional area of
the weld bead, and (b) the feed rate (mm/sec) at which the filler
wire must be supplied.
Problem 7
A continuous weld is to be made around the circumference of a
round steel tube of diameter = 6.0 ft, using a submerged arc welding
operation under automatic control at a voltage of 25 volts and
current of 300 amps. The tube is slowly rotated under a stationary
welding head. The heat transfer factor for SAW is = 0.95 and the
assumed melting factor = 0.7. The cross-sectional area of the weld
bead is 0.12 in2. If the unit melting energy for the steel = 150 Btu/in3,
determine (a) the rotational speed of the tube and (b) the time
required to complete the weld. 1Btu=1055W.
Problem 8
A resistance seam-welding operation is performed on two pieces of 2.5-mm-
thick austenitic stainless steel to fabricate a container. The weld current in
the operation is 10,000 amps, the weld duration = 0.3 sec, and the
resistance at the interface is 75 micro-ohms. Continuous motion welding is
used, with 200-mm-diameter electrode wheels. The individual weld nuggets
formed in this RSEW operation have diameter = 6 mm and thickness = 3 mm
(assume the weld nuggets are disc-shaped). These weld nuggets must be
contiguous to form a sealed seam. The power unit driving the process
requires an off-time between spot welds of 1.0 s. Given these conditions,
determine (a) the unit melting energy of stainless steel using the methods of
the previous chapter, (b) the proportion of energy generated that goes into
the formation of each weld nugget, and (c) the rotational speed of the
electrode wheels. Take Tm = 1670°K.
Problem 9
An electron-beam welding operation is to be accomplished to
butt weld two sheet-metal parts that are 3.0 mm thick. The
unit melting energy = 5 J/mm3. The weld joint is to be 0.35
mm wide, so that the cross section of the fused metal is 0.35
mm by 3mm. If accelerating voltage = 25 kV, beam current =
30 milliamp, heat transfer factor f1 = 0.85, and melting factor
f2 = 0.75, determine the travel speed at which this weld can
be made along the seam.
Problem 10
An electron-beam welding operation uses the
following process parameters: accelerating
voltage = 25 kV, beam current = 100 milliamp,
and the circular area on which the beam is
focused has a diameter = 0.020 in. If the heat
transfer factor = 90%, determine the average
power density in the area in Btu/sec in2