Computer - Overview

A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data
input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format.
The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following
five functions −
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man
who will spend many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is
correct.
Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
  It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack
of concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very
next moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the
computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer
memory, then the program and instruction can control the program execution
without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to
reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem
of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially
reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike humans.

Computer Application
1. Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or
versatility which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

2. Banking
Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
Banks provide the following facilities −
 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making
deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee
records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for
customers to deal with banks.

3. Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers.
Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using
computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information
showing −

 Procedure to continue with policies

 Starting date of the policies
  Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus

4. Education
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE
(Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a
computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis
is carried out on this basis.

5. Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and

graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal
of selling more products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use
of computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and
permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

6. Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.
They are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is
also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds
and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the
cause of illness.
  Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared
by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels,
expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

7. Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −

 Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of

ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.

8. Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc.
Military also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a
computer has been used are −

 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

9. Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is
received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant.
Some main areas in this category are −

 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
  FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

10. Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this
category are −

 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting
 Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer
is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish
between varying hardware technologies. Nowadays, generation includes both
hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system.
 There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has
been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In
the following table, approximate dates against each generation has been
mentioned, which are normally accepted.

Computer - Generations
 Following are the main five generations of computers.

[Link] Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

4 Fourth Generation
 The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

[Link] Type Specifications

.

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

1
Computer) microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal computer

2 Workstation
however has a more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of

3 Mini Computer
users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of

4 Main Frame users simultaneously. Software technology is different from
minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of

5 Supercomputer
millions of instructions per second.

Computer - Types
PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular
use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems
are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-
end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and
Dell.

Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop

publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which
require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large
amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type
of workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together
to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone
systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many
programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications
that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid

dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of
geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Computer - Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the
following five basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful
to their users.

[Link] Operation Description

.

The process of entering data and instructions into the computer

1 Take Input
system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for

2 Store Data
processing as and when required.

Processing Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to

3
Data convert them into useful information.

4 Output The process of producing useful information or results for the

 Information user, such as a printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
5
workflow operations are performed.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer.
This unit creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices
translate the information into a form understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data
processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions
(program). It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has the following three components −

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information
from the computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output
devices translate the computer's output into a form understandable by the users.

Computer – CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory
(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit
are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out
any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
  It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.

Computer - Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer –

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)


Computer - Output Devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors
  Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged
in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of
pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated
pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can
be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a
standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80
characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on
walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical
energy into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting
Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to
convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For
example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then
pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −

 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers
are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character
printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size
(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called
Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of
Daisy (flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are
generally used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent
here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the
drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the
paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A
character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the
market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints
one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A
standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages

 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers
print a complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages

 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new
technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet
printers produce high quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles
of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet
printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable
Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

Computer - Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is
divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a
unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if
the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up
the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to
hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by
the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is
currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched
off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as
fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the
main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower
than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently.
CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-
output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the
main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD,
etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.
  It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the
machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same
amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very
expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if
there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is
often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in
the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is
being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile
nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do
not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular
basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for
the same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM
is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data.
This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data
several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is
cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of
one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions
that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.
Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set
of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are
inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user
buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside
the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It
can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming,
an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained
for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this
charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This
exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid
is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read

Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased
and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing
the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

Computer - Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a
computer together. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video
card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can
be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features −
 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
 Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the
motherboard to function properly.
  Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work
properly together.

Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.

 Intel
 ASUS
 AOpen
 ABIT
 Biostar
 Gigabyte
 MSI

Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small
screws through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the
internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU, whereas for memory,
normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach the
floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries
fans and a special port designed for power supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards,
sound cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor,
printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide
USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out
fashion. For example, pen drive, digital cameras, etc.

Computer - Memory Units

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This
storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
The following table explains the main memory storage units −

[Link] Unit & Description

.

Bit (Binary Digit)

1
A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.
 Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a
data item or a character.

Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a
unit, which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
4
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as
small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in
the form of computer words.

The following table lists some higher storage units −

[Link] Unit & Description

.

1 Kilobyte (KB)
1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB
 Computer - Ports
A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected
to the computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through which
information flows from a program to the computer or over the Internet.

Characteristics of Ports
A port has the following characteristics −
 External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is
plugged in.
 Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard,
monitor, microphone, speakers, etc.

Let us now discuss a few important types of ports −

Serial Port
 Used for external modems and older computer mouse
 Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port
 Used for scanners and printers
  Also called printer port
 25 pin model
 IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
 Also called mouse port
 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for the mouse and
keyboard
 IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk,
printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.

VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
 It has 15 holes.
 Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port connector has pins,
VGA port has holes.

Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug.
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall
socket.

Firewire Port
 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
 Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
 Invented by Apple.
  It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400
connector, and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.

Modem Port
 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

Ethernet Port
 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
 Connects the network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon
the network bandwidth.

Game Port
 Connect a joystick to a PC
 Now replaced by USB

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic
cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets
 Sockets connect the microphone and speakers to the sound card of the
computer.

Computer - Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the
components that can be seen and touched.
Examples of Hardware are the following −
 Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.
 Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.
 Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
 Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.
Relationship between Hardware and Software
 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them
must work together to make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is
useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be
loaded into the hardware.
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different
jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its
'soul'. Both are complementary to each other.

Computer - Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function.
A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software −

 System Software
 Application Software

System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and
extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is
generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products
comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the
hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between
the hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,
Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

 Close to the system

 Fast in speed
  Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a
particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can
come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad
for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs,
often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as
a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the following −

 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

 Close to the user

 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space
 Computer - Number System
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as
computers can understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional
number system where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols
represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number.
The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total
number of digits available in the number system)

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number
system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In
decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point
represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the
decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens
position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its value can
be written as
(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)
(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the
following number systems which are frequently used in computers.

[Link]. Number System and Description

1 Binary Number System

Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System

3
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1
 Also called as base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2).
Example 20
 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2).
Example 2x where x represents the last position - 1.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
 Also called as base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8).
Example 80
 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8).
Example 8x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

 Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
 Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D =
13, E = 14, F = 15
 Also called as base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base
(16). Example, 160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16).
Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Computer - Number Conversion

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from
one base to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the following −
  Decimal to Other Base System
 Other Base System to Decimal
 Other Base System to Non-Decimal
 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System

Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit)
of the new base number.
Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new
base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient
becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new
base number.
Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse
order so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the
last remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.

Other Base System to Decimal System

Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the
position of the digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.
Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in
decimal.
Example
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.
Example
Octal Number : 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step 1 - Convert to Decimal
Step Octal Number Decimal Number
 Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary
Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1

Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.
Example
Binary Number : 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

 Step 2 101012 28 58

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258

Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be
treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single
binary number.
Example
Octal Number : 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.
Example
Binary Number : 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −
 Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

Step 2 101012 110 510

Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the
hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single
binary number.
Example
Hexadecimal Number : 1516
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a
formalized manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or
processing by human or electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits
(0-9) or special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)
 Computer - Data and Information
What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for
the receiver. Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are
based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics −
 Timely − Information should be available when required.
 Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
 Completeness − Information should be complete.

Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to
increase their usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing
consists of the following basic steps - input, processing, and output. These three
steps constitute the data processing cycle.

 Input − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example,
when electronic computers are used, the input data can be recorded on any
one of the several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes, and
so on.
 Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a
more useful form. For example, pay-checks can be calculated from the time
cards, or a summary of sales for the month can be calculated from the sales
orders.
 Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is
collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the use of the
data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for employees.

Computer - Operating System

The Operating System is a program with the following features −
  An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the
software and the computer hardware.
 It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall
resources and operations of the computer.
 It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all
other programs that reside in the computer, including application programs
and other system software.

Objectives of Operating System

The objectives of the operating system are −
 To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it
easier for the users to access and use other resources.
 To manage the resources of a computer system.
 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests,
and mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.

Characteristics of Operating System

Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating
Systems −
 Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of
it is in use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory
when a process or program requests it.
 Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and
deallocates the processor when it is no longer required.
 Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O
controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how
much time.
 File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides
who gets the resources.
 Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of
passwords and other similar techniques.
 Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs
and/or users.
 Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request
for a service and from the system.
 Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console
of the computer in the form of instructions. The Operating System
acknowledges the same, does the corresponding action, and informs the
operation by a display screen.
 Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and
other debugging and error-detecting methods.
 Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the
various users of the computer systems.