CHAPTER 3 — THE WORLD OF NUMBERS
CBSE Class 9 | Ganita Manjari Part I | Revision Notes
3.1 The Dawn of Mathematics
Early humans needed to count (e.g., tracking cattle) before formal number systems existed. This was
done through one-to-one correspondence — matching each object to a marker (like a pebble) to check
that nothing was missing.
• Natural Numbers (N) = {1, 2, 3, 4, …} arose from this counting need.
• Lebombo Bone (~35,000 years old, South Africa): 29 notches, believed to be a lunar/menstrual
calendar.
• Ishango Bone (~20,000 BCE, Congo): notches grouped as 11, 13, 17, 19 (primes between 10–
20); another column shows doubling (×2).
• Indian contribution: Indus Valley traders used standardised weights. Vedic texts named powers of
10 up to 10¹² (parārdha); the Lalitavistara (4th century BCE) names powers up to 10⁵³
(tallakṣhaṇa).
• This Indian fascination with powers of 10 eventually led to the place-value decimal system and
the invention of zero.
3.2 The Revolution of Śhūnya (Zero)
• Babylonians and Mayans used zero only as a placeholder (to show an empty column), not as a
number you could calculate with.
• Śhūnyatā (emptiness) was a deep philosophical idea in the Upanishads and Buddhist thought,
describing the meditative state of stillness — this philosophy paved the way for zero as a
mathematical concept.
• Bakhśhālī Manuscript: earliest physical use of a dot (bindu) to represent zero.
• Brahmagupta (628 CE), in the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta, gave zero formal mathematical rules —
turning it into a true number.
Brahmagupta's Rules for Zero
a+0=a (zero added to a number leaves it unchanged)
a−0=a (zero subtracted from a number leaves it unchanged)
a×0=0 (any number multiplied by zero is zero)
a−a=0 (zero is defined as a number minus itself)
3.3 Integers
Brahmagupta introduced negative numbers using the language of commerce:
• Dhana (Fortunes) → Positive numbers
• Ṛiṇa (Debts) → Negative numbers
Integers (Z) = {…, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}. The symbol Z comes from the German word Zahlen
(numbers).
Brahmagupta's Arithmetic Rules:
1. Fortune + Fortune = Fortune: 5 + 4 = 9
2. Debt + Debt = Debt: (−5) + (−4) = −9
3. Fortune − 0 = Fortune; Debt − 0 = Debt
4. Debt × Fortune = Debt: (−3) × 4 = −12
5. Debt × Debt = Fortune: (−3) × (−4) = 12
Why does (−) × (−) = (+)?
Think of a negative number as a debt. Multiplying by a negative means removing that debt.
If someone removes 4 debts of ₹3 each (i.e., removes −3 four times), you become ₹12
richer.
Hence (−3) × (−4) = +12.
3.4 Fractions and Rational Numbers
A rational number is any number expressible as p/q, where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. The set of
rational numbers is denoted by Q.
• Rational numbers include all natural numbers, whole numbers, and integers (since 5 = 5/1, −10 =
−10/1).
• Rational numbers do NOT have a unique p/q form — e.g., −1/3 = −2/6 = −3/9 = … (equivalent
fractions).
• Standard form: p/q where q ≠ 0 and p, q are co-prime (no common factor other than 1).
• Negative fraction sign placement: −1/5 = (−1)/5 = 1/(−5)
Rules of Arithmetic on Rational Numbers:
6. Equality: a/b = c/d if and only if ad = bc
7. Addition/Subtraction (same denominator b): a/b + c/b = (a+c)/b and a/b − c/b = (a−c)/b
8. Multiplication: (a/b) × (c/d) = ac/bd (b, d ≠ 0)
9. Division: (a/b) ÷ (c/d) = (a/b) × (d/c) = ad/bc (b, d, c ≠ 0)
10. Commutativity: a/b + c/d = c/d + a/b and a/b × c/d = c/d × a/b
11. Distributivity: p(q + r) = pq + pr
Closure Property: Rational numbers are closed under addition, subtraction, and multiplication (result is
always rational). They are closed under division too, provided the divisor is not zero.
Representation on the Number Line: To plot p/q, divide the unit interval into q equal parts, then move p
parts right (if positive) or left (if negative) from 0.
Absolute Value: |x| is the distance of x from 0 on the number line; always non-negative. |5/3| = 5/3, |
−5/3| = 5/3. Distance between two rationals a and b = |a − b|.
Density of Rational Numbers: Between any two rational numbers, infinitely many rational numbers
exist. One can always be found by taking the average: (a+b)/2.
3.5 Irrational Numbers
Numbers that CANNOT be written in the form p/q are called irrational numbers (denoted I). Their
decimal expansions are non-terminating and non-repeating.
• Discovered while measuring lengths — e.g., the diagonal of a unit square is √2 (Baudhāyana–
Pythagoras Theorem: 1² + 1² = d² ⇒ d² = 2 ⇒ d = √2).
• First proved irrational by Hippasus (c. 400 BCE) using Proof by Contradiction.
Proof that √2 is Irrational (Steps):
12. Assume √2 = p/q in lowest terms (p, q co-prime, q ≠ 0).
13. Squaring: 2 = p²/q² ⇒ p² = 2q²
14. So p² is even ⇒ p is even. Let p = 2k.
15. Substituting: 2q² = 4k² ⇒ q² = 2k² ⇒ q² is even ⇒ q is even.
16. Both p and q are even ⇒ they share a common factor 2 — contradicts our assumption that p, q
are co-prime.
17. Hence the assumption is false. √2 is irrational.
Construction of √n on the Number Line: Using the Pythagoras theorem and a compass, e.g. for √2 —
draw OA = 1 unit, erect a perpendicular AB = 1 unit, then OB = √2. With O as centre and radius OB,
draw an arc cutting the number line at P; OP = √2.
π (Pi): The ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter; an irrational number. Āryabhaṭa (499 CE)
gave the approximation 3927/1250 = 3.1416. Mādhava of Sangamagrama (14th century, Kerala
School) discovered the infinite series π = 4 × (1 − 1/3 + 1/5 − 1/7 + …). π was formally proved irrational
by Johann Lambert (1761).
3.6 Real Numbers: Decimals and Cyclic Patterns
Real Numbers (R) = Rational Numbers (Q) ∪ Irrational Numbers (I). Together they form the complete,
unbroken number line.
Decimal Expansion Test:
Type of Number Decimal Expansion
Rational Terminating OR Non-terminating but
repeating (recurring)
Irrational Non-terminating and non-repeating
Predicting Terminating Decimals: p/q (in lowest terms) gives a terminating decimal if and only if the
prime factorisation of q contains only 2's, only 5's, or both (i.e., q = 2ᵐ × 5ⁿ). Example: 3/20 = 3/(2²×5) =
15/100 = 0.15
Converting Repeating Decimals to p/q form:
Decimal Type Method
Pure repeating (e.g. 0.6̄) Let x = decimal; multiply by 10ⁿ (n = no. of
repeating digits); subtract original; solve for x.
General repeating (e.g. 2.357̄) Multiply by 10ᵐ to shift non-repeating digits
before decimal; multiply again by 10ⁿ for
repeating block; subtract; solve.
Worked Example: Convert 0.45̄ to p/q form
• Let x = 0.454545… ; Multiply by 100: 100x = 45.454545…
• Subtract: 100x − x = 45 ⇒ 99x = 45 ⇒ x = 45/99 = 5/11
Cyclic Numbers: 1/7 = 0.142857142857… The repeating block 142857 is a cyclic number — multiplying
it by 1 to 6 just cyclically shifts the same digits (e.g. 142857 × 3 = 428571).
Non-uniqueness of Decimals: Every terminating decimal has an equivalent repeating-9 form. E.g.,
1.000… = 0.999…, since if x = 0.999…, then 10x = 9.999…, so 10x − x = 9 ⇒ 9x = 9 ⇒ x = 1.
3.7 Conclusion: Beyond Real Numbers
No real number, when squared, gives a negative result (since both positive×positive and
negative×negative give positive). So √−1 has no place on the real number line.
Mathematicians introduced Imaginary Numbers (denoted i) to solve this — essential in electrical
engineering, quantum mechanics, and modern technology. These are studied in higher grades.
Summary: The Number System Hierarchy
Set Sym Description
bol
Natural N {1, 2, 3, …} —
Numbers counting numbers
Whole W {0, 1, 2, 3, …} —
Numbers natural numbers +
zero
Integers Z {…, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2,
…} — whole
numbers + negatives
Rational Q All p/q form (p, q
Numbers integers, q≠0);
terminating/repeating
decimals
Irrational I (or Cannot be written as
Numbers Q') p/q; non-terminating,
non-repeating
decimals
Real R Q ∪ I — the
Numbers complete, continuous
number line
N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R, and I ⊂ R (but I and Q have no overlap).
Key People & Contributions
Name / Era Contribution
Hippasus (c. 400 BCE) First proof of irrationality of √2 (proof by contradiction)
Baudhāyana (~800 BCE) Śhulbasūtra — encountered irrational lengths in altar
geometry
Patanjali (~3rd c. BCE) Discussed śhūnyatā in the Yoga Sutras
Āryabhaṭa (499 CE) Gave π ≈ 3927/1250 = 3.1416; called it an approximation
(asanna)
Brahmagupta (628 CE) Formalised zero and rules for integer/rational arithmetic
(Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta)
Mādhava of Sangamagrama Infinite series for π; founded the Kerala School of
(14th c.) Mathematics
Johann Lambert (1761) Proved π is irrational