GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERICSTICS OF THE

MAYURBHANJ UPLAND OF ODISHA

A Dissertation Submitted To The Department Of Geology M.P.C Autonomous

College In Partial Fulfilment For The Award Of Master Of Science ([Link].)
Degree

Submitted By:

ALISHA MOHAPATRA
Exam Roll No – P2323002

Under the Guidance of

Ms. Suman Acharya
 P.G. DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
MAHARAJA PURNA CHANDRA AUTONOMOUS COLLEGE, BARIPADA
-757003
2025

DECLARATION

I declared that the Dissertation entitled “GEOMORPHOLOGICAL

CHARACTERICSTICS OF THE MAYURBHANJ UPLAND OF ODISHA’’ ,
comprises research done by me under the guidance of Ms. Suman Acharya. The
work is original and has not been done earlier by anyone else. A part from this
work , which is related to or similar to work done by other researches has been
cited in this thesis is at appropriate place. The result presented in the thesis has
not been submitted previously to this or any other university for master degree
or any other degree.
 Signature of Candidate:

CERTIFICATE

Certify that the Dissertation entitled “GEOMORPHOLOGICAL

CHARACTERICSTICS OF THE MAYURBHANJ UPLAND OF ODISHA’’,
submitted to the department of geology , M.P.C. (A) College, in Partial
fulfilment of the requirement for award of degree of [Link]., is a record of
literature research work done by Alisha Mohapatra. The assistance and co-
operation received during the course of this research and completing the work
has been duly acknowledged.

Place: Baripada Signature of guidance:

Date:………………. Ms. Suman Acharya

(Department of Geology)

M.P.C Autonomous College,

Baripada

Signature of HOD:

Dr. Pramod Chandra Sahu

(Department of Geology)
 M.P.C Autonomous College,

Baripada

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My heartfelt thanks to my esteemed guide Ms. Suman Acharya of Geology

Department, Maharaja Purna Chandra (Auto) College, Baripada, Odisha for
guiding me whole heartedly in preparing this Dissertation entitled
“GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERICSTICS OF THE MAYURBHANJ
UPLAND OF ODISHA’’.
I also acknowledge the continuous encouragement by Dr. P.C. Sahu, H.O.D.,
department of geology , my friends, non-teaching persons involved and finally
in my endeavour.
My deep sense of gratitude is for those who helped me effortlessly in preparing
this Dissertation.
 Place: Baripada Signature

Date:……………….

ABSTRACT

The Mayurbhanj Upland, located in the northern part of Odisha, India, is a distinct
geomorphological region characterized by a diverse range of landforms and dynamic
landscape processes. This study aims to explore the geomorphological characteristics of the
Mayurbhanj Upland by examining its topography, drainage systems, geological structures,
and soil properties. The upland region is marked by a variety of relief features, including
plateaus, hills, and river valleys, which have been shaped by both tectonic movements and
fluvial processes over millions of years.
Field surveys, remote sensing data, and GIS techniques were employed to map the region’s
landforms and understand the spatial distribution of erosion and sediment deposition. The
study identifies several key geomorphological units, such as the prominent Baripada Plateau,
 the highly dissected hill ranges, and the broad valley floors formed by rivers like the
Subarnarekha and Baitarani. The analysis of drainage patterns suggests a complex interplay
between ancient tectonic movements and ongoing erosion, with the region experiencing
differential uplift and subsidence over time.

CONTENT
CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE NO.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW LITERATURE

CHAPTER 3 CLIMATE , SOIL & NATURAL VEGETATION

CHAPTER 4 GEOLOGY OF MAYURBHANJ UPLAND

CHAPTER 5 TOPOGRAPHY OF MAYURBHANJ UPLAND

CHAPTER 6 DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF MAYURBHANJ UPLAND

CHAPTER 7 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF LANDFORM

CHAPTER 8 MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SELECTED

DRAINAGE BASIN

CHAPTER 9 PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF THE MAYURBHANJ UPLAND

CHAPTER 10 SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION

Meaning and scope of Geomorphology :

In its strictest sense the meaning of geomorphology as derived from its three Greek
roots is a discourse on earth forms or the science of land forms and is concerned with the
study of the form of the earth. In practice however, this simple definition is too all-
embracing. The study of macro-features like shape of the earth body, form and origin of
mountain systems, shape and distribution of continental land masses etc. belong to the
domain of geodesy, geology and physics, whereas geomorphologists are mostly concerned
with the study of small-scale landforms, such as drainage basin, areas of uniform rock-type,
individual river valleys of the hill-side slope of a small area.
Sometimes the geomorphologists are reluctant to concentrate sufficiently on careful
landscape description, and over-anxious to explain the origin of landforms about which
insufficient basic information has been obtained. An example lies in the work of W.M. Davis,
who made suggestions on the evolution of slope without detailed measurement of slope
profiles in the field or actual study of the processes of weathering and transportation at work
on slopes. His hypothesis is an example of deductive reasoning he made certain assumptions
(as regards tectonic movement and external process) and argued logically from there. If the
assumptions are wrong, however, the hypothesis is also incorrect. Other similar examples of
deductive approach are the work of Penck (1953) and Wood (1942) on slope development
and Lawson’s (1915) explanation of rock pediment.

Genetic Approaches :
One of the major aims of geomorphology is explain how individual landforms,
and more particularly landform assemblages, have originated. However, most landforms are
so complex and pose such a variety of problems that several genetic approaches may be taken
up for their proper interpretation and explanation :
(a) Geomorphologists may be concerned with establishing fundamental relationships
which exist between landform, structure and process.
(b) Other may approach landform study from a ‘Historical point of view, and
demarcate the various stages of evolution which the landscape has passed through
before attaining its present form.
(c) The main objective of such approach is to identify, date and interpret
planation surfaces developed in past ‘cycles’ and ‘sub-cycles’ of erosion . The
idea is the basic of ‘denudation chronology’ or the history of erosion and
development of landform. In work this kind there is evidently much overlap
with geology, for many of the surfaces preserved in the present landscape may
date basic to Pliocene, Miocene or even early Tertiary times.
(d) Another important aim of denudation chronology is study the manner in
which the drainage system of an area has gradually evolved. Through the
identification of subsequent streams and the interpretation and dating of river
captures, the original consequent pattern is reconstructed and the possibility
of superimposition, antecedence etc. investigated. The above method is highly
speculative and controversial and hence, is subjected to criticism by modern
geomorphologists.

Laboratory and Field Experiments :

In the study of processes, the geomorphologist is in some instances able to
undertake experiments, both in the laboratory and in the field. Laboratory experiments are
rendered largely invalid by problems of scale. It is obvious that, where practicable, field
experiments are usually more satisfactory than those attempted in the laboratory . The
opportunities are, however, very much limited, if only because of the large scale, or
extremely slow speed of most geomorphological processes.
Geomorphology: A field Science :
Even after consideration of all the above facts one should keep in mind that
geomorphology is basically a field science. One has to observe the landform and processes in
the field and derive conclusion on the evolution of landform, partioularly when micro-
features are concerned, mainly on the basis of his observations in the field . Mathematical and
statistical methods of analysis as well as laboratory methods are nothing but aids to draw
such conclusions.
Selection of the Area for study :
The need for accurate description of the geometry of landforms, mainly those of
fluvial origin has been of prime importance in geomorphology, and one of the most important
part of it has been the identification of the basic areal unit within which these data could be
collected, organised and analysed . The conceptions the nature and character of these units
have been a product of the methodological approaches to geomorphology .
The main aspect of the area should be based on geological and geomorphological
unity as depicted by the lithologic, structural and physiographic uniformity as well as by the
sharpness of the contrast of those of the surrounding areas . The sub-divisions of these units
may however, be based on drainage basin boundaries which are included in the area ; these
sub-divisions are chosen mainly for the application of various methods of morphometric
analysis of landform in order to collect quantitative information so that a vivid description of
the landform is available, which may be used for the interpretation of its history of evolution
as well . Example of such geomorphic units are plenty in nature such as the Black Hills of
western U.S.A. or the Massif Central of France . In India , however, there are several such
areas like the Mysore Plateau, Manipur basin, Meghalaya Plateau or the Mayurbhanj Upland
which stand in sharp contrast with the surrounding areas in lithology, structure & topography.
The Mayurbhanj Upland : A Geomorphic Unit :
The choice of the geomorphic unit for the present study is the Mayurbhanj
Upland of odisha ,the abrupt rise of the hill country from the plains of Baripada on the east.
The sudden change of the geologic character as well as the dense forest appeared in striking
contrast with the surrounding. The Mayurbhanj upland represents a concept physical,
geological and obviously a geomorphological unit. The physical unity is apparent in its
distinct boundary formed by the 450 metre contour line which separates it from the
surrounding low-lying and gently undulating country side, especially in the east.

General Information :
Location : The area is located between latitudes 21 0401 N, and 860051 E and 860481 E.
Administratively it belons to Mayurbhanj district of Odisha and lies in the northeastern part
of the state adjoining the border of Bihar in the North and West Bengal in the northeast. The
areal extent of the Upland is about 1000 sq. miles or 2590 sq. kilometres.
 Fig. 1 – Location of the Mayurbhanj Upland in Eastern India

Physiography :-
 Physiographically the area may be described as an Upland or plateau which has a
flattish level surface at an elevation of about 3500 ft (1067m) in the interior with highly
dissected marginal areas. The flattish terrain in the interior is a gently rolling Upland with a
few ridges of resistant rocks . The highest elevation is found in the south-central part of the
Upland where the Meghasini peak reaches a height of 2828 ft(1165 m).

Fig. 2 – Location of the Mayurbhanj Upland in Eastern Odisha

The central part of the area is drained by a number of streams of which the most important is
the Burhabalang River. The streams originate in the interior of the Upland and diverge in all
directions. Escarpments on the hill-sides and gorges and water-falls on the streams are
common sites in the area.
Climate :
Climatically the area belongs to the Tropical Savanna Type of Koppen and Sub-Humid
Type of Thomthwaite . Summer Monsoons bring rain to the area during May-August mainly .
There is no permanent meteorological amount of precipitation or the variation of temperature
in the interior of the Upland . The interior remains cool even in the summer because of the
elevation . Nearby meteorological stations indicate that the monthly average temperature
varies from 150 to 310c while the total annual rainfall is about 127 cm.
4

Fig. 3 – Relief and Rainfall

Flora and Fauna :

The area contains numerous varieties of plants and animals. The most important
commercial timber is Sal (Shorea robusta). An undergrowth of sabal grass is also found deep
into the interior of the area. Elephants, Tigers, Deer, Peacock, Bear, and a large variety of
other in abundance in the area.
Settlement :
The area is very thinly populated mainly because of the less developed transport and
communication, rugged terrain, dense forest, numerous ferocious animals and infertile soil. A
few villages have developed in the alluvial flats of the Upland where people depend mainly
on agriculture and collection of forest produce . Some important villages in the area are
Gujuria in the Khairi valley, Similipalgarh in the Bakua valley, Khejuri in the pitalisil valley
and kadalibari and Dudhiani in the Deo valley.
CHAPTER – 2
REVIEW LITERATURE

The Mayurbhanj Upland of Odisha has been a subject of study in various

geomorphological and geographical research works, which focus on its topography, river
systems, soil characteristics, and processes shaping the landscape. Here's a review of the
literature on the geomorphological characteristics of the region:
1. Topographical Features and Landscape Formation :-
Chakraborty (1993) in his study on the geomorphology of the Chotanagpur Plateau
highlights the extension of the Mayurbhanj Upland as part of the Chotanagpur Plateau. He
mentions the region's topography, which is dominated by hilly terrain, plateaus, and valleys,
especially the Simlipal Hills, the highest elevation in the upland. The Simlipal range, in
particular, stands out for its granite and gneissic rock formations, contributing to the rugged
nature of the region.
2. River Systems and Drainage Pattern :-
Bandyopadhyay (2008) in his research on the rivers of the Mayurbhanj Upland
emphasizes the drainage network, with particular focus on the Subarnarekha River and its
tributaries, such as the Salandi. The Subarnarekha forms the major drainage system, which
has carved deep valleys and gorges through the upland’s rocky formations. The erosion
caused by these rivers has shaped the overall landscape, creating V-shaped valleys and
gorges, common in the Simlipal Hills.
Studies such as Prasad et al. (2012) further detail the sub-catchment areas of the region
and the river systems' role in sediment deposition and erosion processes. The interaction
between the hard rock formations and water has contributed to the formation of unique
geomorphological features, like waterfalls and gorges.
3. Soil Characteristics and Pedological Studies :-
 The soil types prevalent in the region, notably red and lateritic soils. These soils are
rich in iron and aluminum oxides, forming due to the weathering of parent rocks. The
laterization process is prominent in the region, resulting in poor soil fertility in many parts of
the upland. However, areas near river valleys and floodplains show relatively fertile soils,
which are conducive for agriculture.
Soil erosion in the region, with particular reference to the Simlipal Plateau. The upland
areas suffer from erosion due to the steep slopes, which combined with high rainfall during
the monsoons, contribute to soil loss and landscape degradation.
4. Geomorphological Processes :-
The geomorphological processes of erosion, weathering, and denudation in the region.
He attributes these processes to the presence of hard rock formations (e.g., granite and gneiss)
which are resistant to weathering, but when weathered, create a jagged and undulating
landscape.
The denudation process in detail, noting that the region has been subjected to tectonic
stability, resulting in old, eroded hills. The Simlipal and other hills in the region have been
worn down by natural forces, but their current form is the result of long-term geological
processes.

6
5. Climate and Vegetation Influence :-

That the climatic conditions of the region, particularly the monsoon, play an important
role in shaping the region's geomorphology. Heavy rainfall during the monsoon season causes
intense weathering and erosion, especially on the steep slopes of the upland. This climatic
factor accelerates the breakdown of rocks and the formation of valleys.
The dense forest cover, especially in the Simlipal Biosphere Reserve, helps to protect
the soil from excessive erosion. The vegetation also influences the hydrological regime,
impacting the drainage and sediment transportation in the region.

6. Seismic Activity and Tectonic Influence :-

The tectonic setting of the region, acknowledging its seismic stability in comparison to
the rest of Odisha. While there is no significant tectonic activity, the region is affected by
mild earthquakes from the adjoining Chhotanagpur Plateau area, which can cause small-scale
disruption in the landscape.

7. Human Impact and Land Use :-

The impact of human activities on the geomorphological features of the region. They
discuss how deforestation, agriculture, and urbanization are affecting the natural drainage
patterns, soil erosion, and land degradation. Agriculture, particularly paddy cultivation, is
common in the valleys and lower reaches, where the soil is more fertile.

CHAPTER - 3
CLIMATE , SOIL & NATURAL VEGETATION

No separate nomenclature has been attributed to the Mayurbhanj Upland in the

climatic map of Odisha. In fact, the whole of the state of Odisha has been included in a single
climate unit tropical savanna type by Koppen (1924), and sub-humid type of
Thornthwaite(1933). It is in the rainfall characteristics, mainly, that the northeastern part of
Odisha including the Mayurbhanj Upland deviates from the rest of the state. Koppen(1924)
has emphasized rainfall less than 6.1cm for at least one month in a year in his climate type,
while Thornthwaite(1933) has implied deficiency in winter rain. This is true for the rest of the
state, excepting the northeastern part, which gets more winter rain.

Temperature Condition :-

The mean maximum and minimum annual temperatures in the surrounding areas of
the Mayurbhanj Upland is 910F (310.3C) in April-May and 590F(150C) in December/January.
No temperature data are available for the interior parts of the Upland. So, allowing for
Modifications due to altitude, this is the nearest possible account of temperature. A striking
range in diurnal temperature was experienced. Also it was observed that during the post
monsoon period the diurnal range temperature was much less.
Role of Temperature as a Geomorphic Process :-

Repeated heating and cooling of the rock surfaces in the area in response to the
fluctuating temperature brings about mechanical rock disintegration. This happens because
rocks are composed of a variety of minerals which have different specific heat and co-
efficient of expansion . The result is the development of strain in the body of the rocks which
ultimately disintegrate. During field tour, quartzites were seen to have undergone block
disintegration and lie in rugged heaps.

Rainfall Conditions:-

The state of Odisha as a whole comes under the path of the southwest monsoons
because of its location in the tropical belt. The amount of rainfall is lover than in West
Bengal. But during the monsoons, particularly in September and October, cyclones from the
Bay of Bengal move along the Brahmani-Burhabalanga interfluve, and the northeastern part
of Odisha, including the Mayurbhanj Upland, gets considerable amount of rainfall. During
winter, local depressions move along the Ganga plains, and again, due to its proximity to
West Bengal, the northeastern part of Odisha gets some amount of rainfall. So, this part of
Odisha is in a more advantageous position to receive rainfall more often than the rest of
Odisha. The rainfall is not very well-distributed throughout the year. The annual amount
received is over 50 inches, and most of it is received during the monsoons from June to
September, Which amounts to over 40 inches. The rest is irregularly distributed throughout
the winter months. The number of rainy days is about 75 per year. About 63 days are included
in the monsoon period, and the rest again is irregularly distributed throughout the winter
months.

The Effect of Rainfall on River Regime:-

The irregular distribution of rainfall is not sufficient to maintain a steady flow in the
rivers of the area. Whatever water is found in the rivers in the dry season is from seepage.

During the field work in February, incidentally a dry month for the area, the rivers appeared
as more trickles, and were reduced to stagnant pools of water in certain localities. Some dry
valleys were also noticed in the area. The sudden concentration of rainfall during the
monsoon affects the rivers greatly. According to local people, the rivers which could be
waited across without even wetting feet, become such surging torrents that they are
unsurpassable unless bridged. The height of the banks and the dry beds of the rivers
confirmed such high stages. The steep gradient of the rivers in the hilly area, however, does
not permit frequent flooding.

Soil:-

The soil map prepared by Roy Chaudhury (1963) shows the Mayurbhanj Upland having
red earths. Sinha (1971) on the other hand stresses occurrences of red earths and also laterites
in the area. The District Gazetteer of Mayurbhanj (1961) describes the plateau tops as
covered by high level laterites. Also considering the extensive distribution of laterite in the
adjacent regions of Chhotnagpur and Keonjhar plateaus, it is quite normal to find laterite in
this plateau area as well. During field tour also, the whole region was seen covered by
laterites ranging widely in texture.

Origin of Laterites :-

Wadia (1919) has dealt in some details with the problem of the origin of laterite.
According to him the origin of laterite is intimately connected with the physical, climate and
denudational processes at work in India. The subject is full of complexities, and although
many hypotheses have been advanced by different soil scientists, the origin of the laterites as
yet, is a much debated question.
 9

Fig. 4 :-Soil Texture

One source of difficulties lies in the chemical and segregative changes which are
constantly going on this rock, and which obliterate the previously acquired structures and
produce a fresh arrangement of the constituents of the rock. It is probable that laterites of all
different places have not had one common origin, and that widely divergent views are
possible for the origin of different varieties. The probable origin of the laterites of the
Mayurbhanj Upland may be stated as the result of the sub aerial decomposition in situ of
basalt and other aluminous rocks under a warm, humid and monsoonic climate. The silicon is
removed in solution, and the salts of alkalis and alkaline earths, derived from the
decomposition of the ferromagnesian and aluminous silicates, are dissolved by precolating
water. The remaining alumina and iron oxides become more and more concentrated and
become mechanically mixed with the other products liberated in the process of
decomposition. Vesicular or porous, so characteristic of laterite, is due to molecular
segregation taking place within the products left behind.

Composition of Laterite :-

Laterite is a vesicular, clayey rock, composed essentially of a mixture of hydrated oxided

of alumina and iron, with small percentages of other oxided often present. The iron oxide
generally preponderates and gives the rock its prevalent colour. At places the iron gets
concentrated into granules.
Varieties of Laterite :-

Laterites are usually classed into two groups :- high-level laterites and low-level laterites.
The high-level laterite, according to Wadia (1959) never occurs below 2000 feet (610m),
altitude and is characterised by massive homogeneous grains and uniform composition.

10

The low-level laterites occur on lower tracts, is less massive and is of mechanical
disintegration of the high-level laterites. So the chief difference between these two varieties is
in the age of their formation, the low-level laterite being obviously more recent, compared to
the high-level laterite, and the second difference lies in their genesis.

Field Observation on Laterites :-

The laterite caps are known to be great thickness. The borings revealed a soil profile
about 18 ft.(5.5m) in depth below which it struck the bed rock. Laterites varying in colour
and texture were found to extend till about 10 ft (3 m) after which a greyish brown soil
marked the transition to the lava below. The District Gazetteer of Mayurbhanj (1961) also
described the high-level laterites as having depths varying between 3 and 6 metres in
thickness. The horizontal distribution of laterite was seen to be extensive. Only difference
apparent was of textural composition. The hill slopes and granules and pebbles of laterite
concretions on the surface whose diameter range approximately from 2 to 10 mm. These may
be regarded as high-level laterites. The interfluve area and valleys typically contained dusty
and fine textured laterites. They are probably of secondary origin and may be regarded as
low-level laterites. To find out if there exists any textural difference between low-level
laterites, two samples collected in the area were subjected to mechanical analysis.

Geomorphic Significance of the Texture :-

The laterites in general provide open textured and friable soils. The high-level laterites
of the area are more porous and permeable on account of the large interspaces between the
particles. The low-level laterites, as indicated by the table, show comparatively less coarse
texture. But because the proportion of sand is high in both, they are considerably porous and
allow percolation of water. As a result, high rate of infiltration in the region reduces surface
run-off even after heavy rains. Lesser number of drainage channels have been formed in the
area due to the high rate of infiltration and the drainage texture has become moderately
coarse. An analysis of the map of drainage texture of the area in chapter VII has revealed this
character more clearly.

Natural Vegetation :-

Under the hot and humid climate with a seasonal concentration of rainfall, has
developed and extensive and dense forest cover in the Mayurbhanj Upland.
The forests in the Upland, belong to the broad classification of North Indian moist
tropical forests with sub-groups like moist peninsular high level Sal forest, moist peninsular
low level Sal forests, moist peninsular valley Sal forests, moist Sal savanna, Orisha tropical
semi-evergreen forests and very moist peninsular Sal forests. The most valuable and
extensive Sal forests are the moist peninsular valley Sal. Asan, bahada, haldu, kusum,
champa, simal etc. are common associates of Sal in this forest type. The forests contain many
interesting ferns, orchids, herbs and shrubs of high medical value. The rare and virtually
extinct gymnosperm, gentum has also been reported to exist in the area in addition to
numerous cycads. Species of wild lemon and willows are also found along the lower part of
the valleys. An undergrowth of tall sabai grass is common in many area of the forest. The
most important forest produce include large amount of Sal seeds, Sal resine, arrowroot,
honey, edible fungi etc. which are collected by local inhabitants for home consumption
11

Fauna :-

The Mayurbhanj Upland is well-known for its various types of wild life. The animals
and birds of the area constitute the distinctive and attractive fauna of the peninsular India. It
is the area for tiger reserve. It has tigers like Panthera Tigris, Panthera Pardus ,other animals
like elephant (Elephas maximus), Sambar (Cervus unicolour), gaur(Bos ganrus), hyaena
(Hyaena hyaena), Kutra, wild boar, porcupine, spotted deer, common langur, Rhesus monkey,
antelope, pangolin, sloth bear, jungle cat, wild dog etc. are in abundance.
 Varied forms of bird exist in the area. The most important of these are mynah (Gracula
religiosa), pointed spur fowl (Gallus unnulata) and pea-fowl (Pavo cristatus). Other important
avian fauna are wood pigeon, dove, spur fowl, horn bills and parrots. Partridges, quails,
Malabar pies, orioles, bulbuls, parakeets and racket-tailed Drangoes are also common in the
area. In addition to the above, other fauna include various types of hill stream fishes
including mahaseer. A large variety of poisonous and non-poisonous snakes are found all over
the place. The mugger or marsh crocodiles, once common in deeper pools are now found only
in few areas. Lizards and various forms of forest insets including lepidoptera, hoppers bores,
gall forming, lac forming insects and soil mites exhibit an excellent faunic composition.

In view of the rich flora and fauna, the area has been declared as a sanctuary. Part of
it with a core area of 303 km 2 was constituted in a tiger reserve in 1973 under project tiger in
order to provide improved habitat to the dwindling tiger population of the area. All tree
peelings in the core area have been stopped by Government order.

Geomorphic Significance of a Dense Vegetation :-

Great significance is attached to a dense vegetation in geomorphology. First, a dense

canopy helps to reduce the intensity of run-off and consequently prevents soil erosion.
Secondly, the roots of the plants bind the soil particles together as a result of which less soil is
washed off. Also, laterites being open and friable, have a greater tendency to get displaced.
The roots provide useful anchorage to them and increase their permeability. For this reason
especially, forest cover is very essential to protect soil from erosion and thereby to protect the
scattered and tiny agricultural fields of the are on which the living of the people the locality
depends to a very great extent. During the visit to the area certain areas on hill-slopes, which
are devoid of forest cover, were found to have been severely affected by soil erosion and
extension of gullies .
12
 CHAPTER – 4

GEOLOGY OF MAYURBHANJ UPLAND

Introduction :-

The Mayurbhanj Upland, along with Banai Hills and Keonjhar Plateau are relics of the oldest
Dharwarian landmass of India .The area was geologically unexplored till 1951. Previously,
Occurrence of banded haematite quartzites caused by Pre-Cambrian intrusions in Dharwar
sediments was noticed by Bose(1904) on the western flank of the area. Krishnan(1936) found
granites with batholitic mass and dykes, mostly doleritic, extending into this part of
Mayurbhanj .Dunn and Dey(1942) mapped a large area of Singhbhum granites north of the
area. They established the correct sequence of series exposed there. Iyenger (1964) carried
out geological mapping of the area, and established the sequence out geological mapping of
the area, and established the sequence of volcanic phases not represented outside the Upland.
Geological History :-

Iyengar and Banerjee(1964) have described the geological history of the area as
follows : The iron ore bearing formations and the associated metamorphics of Bihar and
Odisha states record the evolution of a Pre-Cambrian geosyncline with a number of organic
episodes : Banded chert, banded haematite quartzites, epidote and diopsitic quartzite, phyllite,
actinolite and talc schist and minor bands of serpentine belonging to the iron ore bearing
formations of the Mayurbhanj-Singhbhum-Keonjhar region were culminated in the end of the
first orogenic cycle, which culminated in the emplacement of the main mass of the Sighbhum
Granite. These folded rocks along with the Singhbhum Granite formed the Crotonid block
for the younger Dhanjori cycle of sedimentation.

The lowest observable sedimentary member of this younger cycle is the turbidite-
quartzite member of the Ghatsila region. To the north, these are overlain by black phyllites,
impersistent bands of quartzite, and the basic lavas of the Dalma range of hills. To the south
these are separated from the black phyllite, quartzite conglomerates and basic lava succession
of the Dhanjori and Similipal ranges by the Singhbhum copper belt thrust.

Stratigraphy :-

The sequence of the geological formations in the Mayurbhanj district and the
associated igneous activity are given below following Wadia (1919) and Iyengar and
Banerjee(1964).

TABLE – I

Stratigraphical Sequence of Geological

Formations in Mayurbhanj Upland.
Alluvium
Tertiary beds - Baripada Tertiaries (Miocene)
---------------------------- Unconformity --------------------------
Dolerite - Epeirogeny Cratonic Intrusions
Roma Pahari Granite - Granite at the end of the second orogenic cycle.

13
Pyroxene granite
 Riebeckite granite - Peripheral intrusions along fractures following
Granophyre the volcanic activity (early synorogenic phase)
Gabbro-Anorthosite

Spilitic lava and tuff

quartzite
-------------------------------------- Unconformity -----------------------------------
Singhbhum Granite - Granite at the end of the first orenic cycle

Phyllites
Banded haematite quartzite,
Banded chert, quartzite, - Iron ore bearing formations of
Calcsilicate rocks, actinolite, Mayurbhanj
Hornblende-talc schists
-------------------------------------- Unconformity -----------------------------------
Older Metamorphic - End of Older Metamorphic Cycle
(not represented here)

Description of Geologic Formations :-

The District Gazetter of Mayurbhanj(1961) reports some exposures as follows :-

(a) Amphibolites :– In the Similipal Reserved Forest Area, amphibolites belonging to the
Iron-ore stage are seen associated with banded quartzites. Good exposures are found at
Barajori, Hatichar and Pirhakata pahar.
(b) Quartzite and Intercalated Phyllites :- Quartzites belonging to the Dhanjori stage
form the nose of the heart-shaped basin. Some of these exhibit excellent current
bedding which can be seen in the Burhabalng section, Valley of palpala river and the
eastern cliff face of Ghusuria Pahar.
(c) Dalma volcanics (including Epidiorites) :- Three distinct flows can be seen in the
middle and northern part of the Upland. The flows vary in texture and appearance .
Vesicular varities are common. Typical exposures are seen at Nachuani Buru,
Aranjori pahar, Gurguria, Simipalgarh etc.
 (d) Gabbro-Anorthosite and Serpentine :- Gabbro-Dhanjori rocks are seen in several
parts of the Upland. Exposures noted at Epadai Hills, Bhanjikusumghati, Debigarh
pahar,etc. Serpentine is found in sections of river Khairibhandan near Jashipur.
(e) Granite :- In the southern part of the area occur extensive outcrops of granodiorites.
(f) Newer Dolerites :- Found abundantly in the basin intruding the quartz, phyllites and
Dalma volcanics.
(g) Tertiary clays, Ferruginous Grits and Gravels :- Clay bands, probably of Tertiary age
are found mostly in plain country north of Baripada .Tyical exposures occur along
Burhabalang .These, along with grit, are seen in several sections along small streams or
nalas.
(h) Laterites :- High level laterite covers the area with a depth of about 3-6 m. They are mostly
ferruginous with occasional lenticles of bauxite. Basalt and epidiorite boulders were noticed
in the bed of khaiei Nala during field work.
14
 Fig.5 – Geological Environment

15
Interpretation of the Geological Map :-

The geological map (Fig.5) of the area as drawn after Iyengar shows a concentric
arrangement of three bands of quartzites, usually less than a mile(1.6 km) in width, and
intervened by volcanic rocks. The Amjhori sill occupies the core of the inner ring of quartzite
and is coarse in texture. A patch of ferruginous shale appears on the south between the last
two rings of quartzites. The area outside the quartzite rings is dominated by granites of
various ages. They are interrupted by occasional patches of various rocks, like phyllites in the
northeast. A band of gabbro-anorthosite is seen running nearly parallel to the outermost
quartzite ring, but is broken up in the south by a fault-line and is entirely missing in the
northeast. To study the structure of the area, a section drawn after Iyengar and Banerjee
(1964) is used. The section is drawn from northwest to southeast along the line A-B (Fig.5) .
The sequence of beds revealed are as follows :

13. Tertiary
12. Amjori sill
11. Romapahari granite
10. Gabbro-Anorthosite
9. Top Band of Volcanics
8. Top Band of Quartzite
7. Middle Band of Volcanics
6. Middle Band of Quartzite
5. Basal Band of Volcanics
4. Basal Band Of Quartzite
3. Black Phyllite
----------------------------- Unconformity ------------------------------
2. Singhbhum Granite
1. Iron-ore formation of Badampahar and
Gorumahisani

The beds all dip to the centre, to form a synclinal structure. The Amjori sill is seen
intruding into the formations at the core of the area. The quartzite bands record a dip varying
between 20 and 30 degrees The fault lines indicated on the map(Fig.5) are not represented in
the section and the amount of displacement is not recorded anywhere.

CHAPTER - 5
TOPOGRAPHY OF MAYURBHANJ UPLAND

Introdution :-

The earliest available description of the Mayurbhanj Upland is after Sir William Hunter
(1872) who described if as follows :

The hitherto almost unexplored mountains of Mayurbhanj heaped upon each other in
noble masses of rock 3,300 ft. to nearly 4,000 ft. high, sending countless tributaries to the
Baitarani on the south, and pouring down the Burhabalanga with the feeders of the
Subarnarekha on the north.

In the present work, several maps and diagrams have been prepared in order to
facilitate study the topography of the area and relief features of the upland are discussed
along with their interpretation.

Interpretation of the Contour Map :- (Fig. 6)

The contour map of the Mayurbhanj Upland, prepared at 500 ft. interval after the
survey of India topographical maps, reveals the following characteristics :

(a) The Mayurbhanj Upland does not rise uniformity in elevation from the surrounding
country side. On its western flank, the hill starts only above the 1500 ft. contour,
while on the east it starts rising from the 500 ft. contour . This characteristic which
shows the physical setting of the Upland. The Mayurbhanj Upland is been marking
the transition between the Garjhat hills and the coastal plains of Odisha, and stands on
the extreme eastern edge of the Baitarani Upland, whish has an elevation of about
1500 ft. ,while the coastal plains are definitely lower in elevation .This accounts for
the contrasting elevation at the base of the Upland on two opposite sides.
(b) Another very obvious feature is that the contours at the base of the Upland show
definite bunching which indicates a sudden rise with a scarp face over surrounding
area.
(c) The contours show innumerable crenulationa, and deep indentations are also marked
at several peripherial sections. These suggest that the area is under a very active
process of fluvial erosion, the indentation and crenulations marking the courses of
streams which are responsible for dissecting the boundary of the hills.
 Fig. 6 – Contours in Feet

18

Interpretation of the Physiographic Diagram (Fig.-7) :-

 Following Physiographic diagram has been constructed for the area. It differs from the
block diagram in that this has been drawn on a very small scale, and is meant to bring out
only the macro-relief features of the region. A scrutiny of this map reveals the following
features :

(a) The centre of the Upland is conspicuously occupied by flat-topped plateaus and ridges
at various levels, arranged in step-like fashion around a central elevated tract.

Fig, 7 - Physiography
 (b) The central elevated tract, elongated in form and acting as the main water divide for
the region, has spurs radiating from it. Some discontinuous ridges of the same height
range can also be traced. Typically all these features are flat-crested with occasional
hillocks rising above them.
(c) A flattish land surrounds the upper elevated tract. Descent to this land from the upper
surface is somewhere marked steeply, and somewhere gently. This lower plateau
surface is very much dissected by rivers, and is represented only in the interfluves.
(d) Descent to the lower plain land form this second plateau surface is very much
dissected by rivers, and is represented only in the interfluves.
(e) The plains at the base of the Upland are not extensive, and are extending into the
plateau along the river valleys.

Topography in relation to Structure :-

Topography in relation to underlying lithology and structure is studied mainly by

comparing the geological map with the topographical map of the same area. Sections are
prepared, plans are superimposed and block diagrams are drawn to illustrate whether any
relation exists between lithology and structure on the on hand and topography on the other.

The geological section in the preceding chapter reveals a synclinal basin structure
underlying the hills. In an ideal case, a topography, when related to structure, would show a
valley occupying a syncline and a ridge occupying an anticline. This apparent lack of
relationship between the macro-structure and relief for the region as a whole points to the
antiquity of the structure.

Topography on different rock types :-

1) Topography on quartzite :- Haque has alluded to three hill ranges associated with the
three quartzite bands in the area. To test this statement plans of the quartzite bands and
the contours are superimposed on each other. A discontinuous pattern of ridges can be
traced on the southern portion of the quartzite bans. So Haque is at least partially correct
in his interpretations.
 20
2) Topography on volcanic rocks :- A block diagram has been prepared for the region
underlaid by Amjori sill. A flat-crested pattern of the ridges is prominent, which is
apparently due to the horizontal disposition of the lavas.

3) Topography on Gabbro-Anorthosite :- In the surrounding granite country, the

topographic expression of a band of Gabbro-Anorthosite is found to be a ridge and be
attributed to the greater resistance of the Gabbro-Anorthosite compared to the granites.
4) Topography on granite :- Topographic expression of the granites in the south of the
region shows a rectangular pattern of dissection as seen in the quartzite area. This can
also be explained by the control exerted by joint pattern of the granites.
 21

Topographic Control on Rainfall :-

To find out whether the area exerts any control over the distribution of local rainfall,
two plans of same scale have been prepared. The first one shows the annual distribution of
rainfall in the region by isopleth lines. The second one shows the relief ranges of the Upland
over the adjoining area. Sections have been drawn from the northwest to the south east along
the lines on both the plains .

The rise in relief is accompanied by a distinguishable rise in the rainfall profile. So it

can be stated that the topography of the Mayurbhanj Upland does exert a definite control in
determining the amount of local rainfall.
CHAPTER - 6
DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF MAYURBHANJ UPLAND

The streams of the Mayurbhanj Upland flow out radially from a central water divide,
to feed three different river systems. Those emerging from the western half go to the
Baitarani river system. Streams flowing out from the eastern flanks feed the Burhabalang
river system. A few streams flowing out the north go to join the Khadkai river system.

The Baitarani River System :-

Some of the left bank tributaries of the Baitarani River which encircle the Mayurbhanj
Upland on the west and south originate from these hills. From the north to the south they are
as follows : Khairi-Bhandan Nala, Deo Nala, Slandi Nala, and their respective tributaries.
 Fig.11- Major Drainage System
23

The Khairi-Bhandaan Nala has the largest catchment area, over 230 miles 2 in the
Upland. The Bhandan Nala rises from the main water divide at an elevation of 3100 ft.
(945m). It follows a westerly course, and flows for 24 miles (39 km) before meeting the
Khairi Nala near Jashipur. Two streams, Jamuna and Pitalisil, together form the source of the
Khairi Nala. The Jamuna Nala, which is obviously the main of the two, being longer, rises at
the heart of the upland at an elevation of 3572 ft. (1089 m) near Belrajhuri Huli. After
flowing for about 12 miles (19 km) it is joined by the Pitalusil Nala from the right. Their
combined waters, called ‘Khairi Nala’, flows for another 22 miles (35 km) in a general
northwest direction till it is jointed by the Bhandan Nala near Jashipur situated just outside
the boundary of the Upland.
The Deo Nala has a catchment of over 144 miles 2 (373 km2). The river rises near
Megasini peak (3823 ft./1166 m), incidentally the highest point in the Upland. It has a general
north-westerly course for about 31 miles (50 km) within the Highlands. Budhi Nala, a left
bank tributary, joins the Deo Nala on the boundary of the Upland where the plains begin.
Bhirol, Tel and Sim Nalas are some of the minor streams that have insignificant
catchment areas in the upland, and all flow out wester ward to meet the Baitarani River
individually.
Salandi Nala in the south, along with a number of feeders like the Gobar Jhora and
Kantiali Nalas, individually occupy minor areas never exceeding 35 miles 2(91 km2). The
Salandi Nala rises at an elevation of 3000 ft. (314 m) south of Meghasini. It has a south-
westerly course for about 27 miles(43 km) after which it leaves the Upland with a sudden
south-eastward swing across the plains to join the Baitarani River.

The Burhabalang River System :-

The Burhabalang River itself and one of its right bank tributaries viz. Palpala Nala,
originate from the Mayurbhanj Upland. A few other streams like the Sanjo, Deo, Kantiali and
Kala Nala flow out to meet Palpala Nala outside the hills, which in turn meets the
Burhabalang river much downstream.
The Burhabalang river originates from the Bisal Danda peak at an elevation of 3542
ft.(1080 m) at the central part of the upland, and has a catchment area of over 138 miles 2 (357
km2). The river follows a northerly course for about 21 miles (34 km) till it is jointed by
Kuam Nala, a left bank tributary. Next, it takes a north-easterly course for 18 miles (29 km).
Here the junction with Choragadha Nala, a right bank tributary, is marked by a change to
southeasterly trend of the Burhabalang, which is to continue till it falls in the Bay of Bengal.
The Palpala Nala is an important right bank tributary of the Burhabalang river with a
catchment of over 86 miles2 (223 km2) within the hill area. It originates from near Payekuchu
Buru (3402 ft/927 m). Near its head the Palpala Nala has a right angled bend in its course
after flowing for 4 miles (6 km), after which it has a north-easterly course for about 20 miles
(32 km) till it joins the Burhabalang River north of Baripada in the Plains.
The Sanjo, Deo, Kantiali and Kala Nala are minor streams, and individually they do
not occupy more than 40 miles2 (104 km2) of the total area of the Upland. All these streams
flow out eastwards fall ultimately into the Sone river in the plains, which in turn falls into the
Burhabalang as a right bank tributary.

24
The Khadkai River System :-

The Khadkai Nala forms the head of the Khadkai River, and originates from the
northern parts of the Upland. The Khadkai Nala meets the Kaliska and Andhari Nalas just on
the margin of the northern boundary of the hills and they all occupy only minor areas. The
Deo Nala – 3 is another right-bank tributary of the Khadkai Nala. Incidentally, all have, in
general, north to northwesterly courses.

General Characteristics :-

The topographical maps show the streams of the area as non-perennial in character
except the Khairi Nala and the Burhabalang river which are non-perennial only for some
distance in the upper course after which they become perennial in the lower course.
During field tour in late February, incidentally a dry to nearly dry month for the area,
the streams were seen as either reduced to trickles, or were marked by a chain of
disconnected, stagnant pools of water in the dry beds.
Such characteristics are apparently due to the fact that the steams are all rain fed, and
in dry season the flow is entirely dependent an seepage from underground. The bouldery beds
and the open-textured laterites of the area allow infiltration of water, and provided there is a
good underground storage, a good dry weather flow is maintained. But the area experiences
only a moderate amount of rainfall throughout the year, and obviously it is not enough to
keep a high water table throughout the year, and obviously it is not enough to keep a high
water table throughout the year. This accounts for such scanty flow of water during the dry
period.
Drainage Pattern:-

The streams of the Upland, as a whole, show a radial pattern of drainage which can
also be distinguished in smaller scales all over the region – all being associated with peaks.
Radial pattern of drainage is attributed to topographical control is exerted by Domes, volcanic
cones and various other types of isolated conical and subconical hills.

25
Fig.12- Drainage Pattern
26
Rectangular pattern of drainage can be distinguished in several sections, where the
main stream and its tributaries display right-angled bends. They reflect the joint and fault
pattern of the underlying rocks.
Dendritic pattern is most common on homogeneous granitic rocks or basalt,
where an apparent lack of structure control is seen. Rock outcrop is seen to control the river
course as in the case of Salandi Nala. The drainage basin of Deo Nala is also seen to be
controlled by the quartzite bands in its upper reaches.
Effect of fault in controlling the course of the river is seen in the case of
Burhabalang river in its middle course. Hence it can be concluded that the rivers of the
Mayurbhanj Upland are characterised by an adjustment to the structure of the area.

Fig.13- Drainage vs Structure

27

CHAPTER - 7
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF LANDFORM

Introduction :-

The importance of the study of ‘form’ is indicated by the term ‘Geomorphology’ itself.
To study the ‘form’ quantitatively has been the aim of the physiographers since the 19 th
century. Study of Morphometric and quantitative aspects from the topographical maps has
been prevalent since the later part of the 19 th century. But the term ‘Morphometry’ has been
coined later in the 20th century. Emanuel de Martonne in his ‘Trait de Geographic Physique’ is
known to have adopted the expression ‘Morphometry’ for the first time. He defined it as the
numerical systemization of the landform as interpreted from topographical maps. According
to R.J. Chorlry, it is the quantification of the geometrical qualities of the landform. J.I. Clarke
has defined Morphometry as the ‘Measurement and mathematical analysis of the
configuration of the earth’s surface and the shape and dimensions of its landforms’.

The main aspects examined under morphometry are the area, altitude, volume, shape,
slope profile and texture of land, as well as the varied characteristics of rivers and drainage
basins. A great number of techniques have come into prominence, as recommended by
various workers for specific problems. Several classifications have been attempted to group
systematically the morphometric methods. The classification attempted by Pal, which is a
combination of the previous classifications, and the most up-to-date, appears to be most
satisfactory also. According to him, morphometric methods can be grouped under the
‘arbitrary’ heads of Graphical, Arithmatical and Cartographical analysis, statistical Indices
and Drainage Network Relationships. The results of morphometric analysis are expressed by
graphs, maps and statistical indices.

Development of Morphometry :-

The initial workers in the field of morphometry were usually concerned with
measurement of the area-height relations, and developed the hypsographic, clinographic and
hypso-clinographic curves. They also made calculations regarding the average height,
average slope and volume of landmass etc. The main drawback during the 19 th century was
the inaccuracy and the small scale of the topographical maps.

The 20 th century saw a widening of the scope of morphometric analysis. Needless to

say, large scale maps greatly facilitated this development. New techniques were invented for
the description of specific relief features like the erosion surface, slope and valleys. Also,
morphometric analysis from topographical maps supplied evidence for solving geomorphic
problems, like establishing denudation chronology, studying the drainage development, etc.

Recently in the post-war period, Horton added to the earlier morphometric studies,
measurements relating to one of the most fundamental of all geomorphic units- the drainage
basin. This vastly increased the number and scope of possible form measurements in
geomorphology. Based on measurable quantities like number, length, area and slope of
streams, and by showing that they are related to one another quantitatively or dimensionally,

28

empirical relationships that can be established between the variables came to be referred to as
the ‘Laws of Morphometry’. This phase of micro-morphometry requires precise field
measurements and statistical techniques to digest the mass information obtained. Also, it
establishes rapport between the historical and dynamic aspects of landform development.
 This recent phase of morphometry has been complementary to the application of
Davis triology ‘structure, process and stage to landform studies. The criticism against
morphometric methods of analysis appears vast. Clarke has beautifully met such arguments
by accepting them, and has suggested that it is better to use several different methods in the
analysis of a single area or a problem. Also, the method chosen for analysis should take into
consideration the size of the study area and its relief.

Quantitative Analysis of the Relief Features :-

Quantitative analysis of the relief features of the Mayurbhanj Upland has been
undertaken mainly, as alluded to in the introduction, to find solution to a regional problem,
that is, to establish a denudation chronology for the area.

It is intended to study, by morphometric techniques, the relationship of numerical

values of height, height and area, area and slope etc. in the region with the hope of
discovering whether any extensive surface or sudden break of slope occurs in any particular
height range, which in turn may provide clue to the solution of the problem. The
morphometric methods classified by Pal, under the headings of Graphical and arithmetical
analysis, are adopted for this purpose.

The Cartographical Maps mentioned by Pal are also applied to discover whether
these is areal dominance of a particular slope range or height range or relief range in the area.
Techniques are applied to reconstruct on map the past form and project the future form of the
upland. The results obtained by applying cartographical techniques are expected to be
complementary to the results deduced from Graphical and Arithmetical analysis.

Some statistical Indices are also worked out with the intention that their results
may strengthen the solution to the problem. The obvious underlying reason for applying so
many morphometric methods, all with a common end, is to safeguard the possibility of wrong
deduction from a single or particular method.

Graphical Analysis of the Landform :-

“Graphical Methods include the profiles which are the most familiar ones for
representing the cross-section view of the form of the land surface which could be envisaged
from the topographical map. The profiles basically illustrate the manner of variation of
elevation of the surface along a given line”.
 Single serial profiles have been drawn for the area at 5 minute grid interval both
latitudinally and longitudinally. The base map consulted is of the scale 1:253,440. The
profiles drawn are arranged in various manners to discover specific relations in height range.
They are presented below.

29

Superimposed Profiles (Trueman,1938):-

To facilitate rapid comparison of levels, all the serial profiles are superimposed into
two latitudinal and longitudinal frames.(Fig.14)

The latitudinal superimposed profiles of the area show accordance of levels at

2750 ft(838 m), 3000 ft(914 m) and 3250 ft(991 m). Similar results are obtained from a study
of the longitudinal superimposed profiles of the region.

Projected Profiles (After Barrel, 1920):-

Superimposition of too many profiles on a single base results in some confusion.

To avoid it, simplification of the superimposed profiles into projected profiles is desirable.
Here the first of the series of the profiles, Which is nearest to the observer, is drawn complete,
the second or next drawn only when it rises above the first and so on throughout the series,
till completed.
30
As described above, Projected Latitudinal Profiles are constructed for the area as
viewed from the north and the south, and projected Longitudinal profiles are drawn as viewed
from the west and the east of the area.
In the Projected Latitudinal Profiles viewed from the north, a valley area at an
altitude of 2750 ft(838 m) is revealed, topped by flat summits rising to 2000 ft.(914 m) in the
eastern part of the area.
The projected Latitudinal Profiles viewed from the Upland as viewed from the
east reveal a similar occurrence of flat-topped crests at 3250 ft.(991 m) and intervening
valleys at 3000 ft(914 m) altitude, with another set of profiles marking some flat summits at
3000 ft(914 m) and valleys at 2750 ft.(838 m).
Composite profiles (after Barrel,1920):-
“Tracing only the uppermost line from a diagram of superimposed or projected
profile in a similar frame produces a composite profile’’. The composite profile is meant to
show the skyline of a region.
Two such composite Latitudinal and Longitudinal profiles have been constructed for
the upland. None of the composite profiles bring out any extensive surface at any level. Only
at about 3250 and 3000 ft(991 and 914 m) are distinguished two levels interrupted by peaks
and valleys. The transition between these two levels are usually marked by steep descent.
Both the composite profiles reveal a more rugged skyline in the peripheral regions of
the area. The skyline at the central portion is also rugged to some extent, but much greater
magnitudes of relief are associated with the peripheral regions.

Conclusion Deduced from the Graphical Analysis of the Landform:-

Accordance of summits and surfaces are considered to be the relics of past erosion
surface, provided they do not reflect any structural control. A consultation of the geological
map of the upland shows the summits and surface levels indicated by the superimposed
profiles(2750 ft, 3000 ft and 3250 ft – 838, 914 and 991 m) are located without any apparent
concern over different rocks, like basalt, quartzite, ferruginous shale and granite. A definite
truncation of starts is also indicated in the geological section in spite of the resistance

31
displayed by some local outcrops. So it can be safely assumed that these levels are not the
reflection of any structural control.

If the regional distribution is considered, the maximum areal extent is displayed by

summits and plateaus at 3000 ft(914 m). On the other hand, much smaller extent is seen of
the surfaces located at 3250 ft. (991 m). But considering the flat crested appearance of the
surfaces occurring at 3250 ft (991 m), it is quite possible to infer that this level at one time
represented the base level of erosion for the region and was later uplifted to its present height.
Also, limited areal extent does not necessarily go against representation of past erosion
surface, as later cycles in a region usually proceeds with the destruction of the former surface.
So it is quite possible that both 3250 ft and 3000 ft (991 and 914 m) represent two significant
heights in the region. The accordance revealed at 2750 ft (838 m) consist mainly of valley
flats, and should not therefore be given regional importance.

The two levels, i.e. 3250 and 3000 ft (991 and 914 m) will now need further
analysis before they can be accepted as final clues for establishing the denudation chronology
of the area .

Arithmetical Analysis of the Landform:-

Arithmetical methods in morphometry deal with various mathematical analysis of

the topographical maps. The methods in general, deal with numerical values, and are
employed to find out various inter relationships between height, area and slopes of a region.
These methods are highly objective in nature and selection of height ranges are reflected in
all interpretations.

As emphasized previously, all quantitative analysis are carried out with the
intention of studying the macro features in the region. So a base map of scale 1:253,440 is
chosen, and a common height range of 500 ft (152 m), is selected, so as to facilitate a
comparative study of the individual methods whenever possible.

Altimetric Frequency Curve (after Banly,1928) :-

This curve is also known as the height frequency curve. The last closed contour in
a map is regarded as denoting a summit, and their values are notes are noted down. These are
ultimately expressed as frequency of occurrence against selected height ranges – and the
result expressed in a graph.
(a) The Area-Height Curve :-
This curve represents areas of land between adjacent contours. In the curve for
Mayurbhanj Upland, percent area represented by each inter-contour group has been used
for plotting against corresponding height.
The Area-Height Curve of the area reveals an abnormal dominance of area at mid-
elevation, which is over 50 percent within 2000 to 3000 ft (610 to 914m). The rest of the
area is distributed above and below this height range.

32
(b) The Hypsometric Curve (after Hanson-Lowe,1935) :-

This curve is a cumulative version of the Area-Height curve. The Hypsometric

Curve drawn for the area shows a concave up profile above 3000 ft (914 m), a convex
reach occupying a considerable areal extent between 2000 and 3000 ft (610 to 914 m),
and then sudden plunging of the profile below 2000 ft (610 m), ranges of the Mayurbhanj
Upland, with the maximum area concentrated in the mid-elevations, emphasized a plateau
like form of the region. The scarcity of area at base indicate presence of sharp and abrupt
sides, while the small area above 2000 ft (914 m) indicates the presence of summits.
Since the area height diagrams use hypsometric data, they cannot be relied upon to depict
the breaks of slope.
(c) Clinographic Curves:-
The clinographic curve is the average longitudinal slope curve for an area. Here
various clinographic curves are employed to study whether any break of slope exists in
the area. By applying several methods, the drawbacks associated with individual methods
are found out, and finally the most suitable method is adopted and relied upon for actual
depiction of the break of slope.
(d) The Clinographic curve (after Finsterwalder,1890):-
This is one of the oldest clinographic curves in morphometry. To draw one such
curve for the Upland, contour lengths are first measured by rotameter. Next a curve is
 produced by joining the ends of horizontal lines which are drawn proportional to the
lengths of the contours add are plotted against respective heights on the vertical axis.
(e) The Hypso-clinographic curve (after Finsterwalder, 1890):-
This curve makes use of both hypsometric data and length of contours for its
construction. The horizontal axis is equal to the total area and is segmented cumulatively
into inter-contour areas. The vertical axis represents the sum of the lengths of contour
multiplied by contour interval, again subdivided cumulatively, each segment being the
length of one contour multiplied by the contour interval. The curve is obtained by joining
the intersections of area with height on graph.
The hypso-clinographic curve drawn for the area reveals an irregular distribution
of average slope between inter-contour areas. A small concave reach indicating steep
slope is seen over 3500 ft, below which is a convex reach that extends till 2500 ft .Steep
slope is again emphasized by the concave reach below 2500 ft the profile becomes nearly
vertical.
The overall form presented by the hypso-clinographic curve is that of a gently
sloping plateau surface with steep sides and summits rising above 3500 ft(1067 m) over
the plateau.
(f) The Clinographic Curve (after Hanson-Lowe,1935):-
This curve was devised by Hanson-Lowe(1935) to demonstrate the average angle
of slope of inter-contours are regarded as a series of concentric circles, the radii of which
are found by calculating square root of the area above contour.
The average distance is therefore the radius of the lower contour minus the radius
of the higher contour.

33
(g) The Curve of Average Inter-contour width (after De Smet, 1954) :-
 De Smet proposed for visual representation the plotting of average inter-contour
width derived from either Hanson-Lowe or Strahler’s data for slope curves. Such a curve
has been constructed for the area using data obtained by Strahler’s method. The
maximum inter-contour widths are seen between 2000-3000 ft height ranges.
Correlation of the Average Inter-contour width curve with the mean slope curve
gives negative result – i.e. decrease in slope value.

A Critical Appraisal and Analysis of the Clinographic Curves :-

Correlation of a clinographic curve which is to represent accurately the slope of a

dissected region like the area concerned should take into account both the contour length and
the inter-contour area. The clinographic curve after Finster Walder which is based on the
length of contours above, gives greater length to the crenulated contour of the middle
elevations than those at the base. Consequently the curve is distorted, to produce an
overhanging cliff at the base, which does not give true picture of the topography.

Clinographic curve after Hanson-Lowe by ignoring the contour lengths, reduce

the perimeter of the inter-contour areas to a minimum by converting them into circles. As a
result, the average inter-contour area is exaggerated to produce slope values lower than the
actual. In view of the above facts, the hypso-clinographic curve after FineReader seems to be
ideal. But intro-contour areas being not equally distributed throughout the area, the curve is
somewhat distorted. A marked improvement over the former is the slope curve after Strahler,
which is based on mean inter-contour area and mean length of contours, and the mean slope
values obtained from this method are the most accurate .

Cartographical Analysis of the Landform:-

Cartographical maps are devised to study the areal distribution of landform

characteristics, like relief, dissection or slope in a region. For the upland, various
cartographical maps are prepared, with the hope of discovering something about the stage of
evolution of the landform region.

Average Height Map (after Clarke, 1966):-

To find out the average height of a grid quare, Clarke (1966) has suggested “the
sum of the heights of the four corners to the product of four times the height of the centre
point and dividing by eight’’. The value obtained are then to be used as control for
plotting isopleths.
 An Average Height Map has been prepared in the manner described above for the
area. A base map of scale 1:253,440 and a grid mesh of 1 inch interval were used.
Isopleths were drawn at 500 ft interval to depict regions of average altitude.
To facilitate interpretation of this map, the successive areas between the isopleth
is were measured and expressed as percentages of the total land surface of the area.

34
Fig. - Average Height Map (after Clarke)
35

Relative Relief Map (after Smith, 1935) :-

By relative relief is meant the local relief of an area. The procedure for preparing a
relative relief map of a region is to divide the area into small units. Then the difference in
elevation between the highest and the lowest points in each unit is found.

These values are then plotted in the centre of the corresponding unit areas, and isopleth lines
of equal relative relief are drawn. For preparing a relative relief map of the area, a base map
of scale 1:126,720 was chosen and a grid mesh with 2 inches interval was used. The relative
relief values found for each grid square were next used as control points for drawing isopleths
at an interval of 500 ft .

To facilitate interpretation of the Relative Relief Map of the area, the area contained
within each relief group was measured and expressed as percentage of the total land area .
 Fig.- Relative Relief Map (after Smith)

36
Dissection Index Map (After D. Nir, 1957) :-

Dissection Index is defined as the ratio between relief and maximum altitude. To
prepare a Dissection Index Map for the area, such ratio were found out for each grid
square on the map of scale 1:126,720. The grid interval was 2 inches. The ratios were
next used for drawing isopleths at 0.2 interval, and five zones of dissection were
identified. The area contained within each zone has been measured and expressed as
percentage of the total land area, and the results are represented below.
 An analysis of the table reveals that the Index groups ranging between 0.2 and 0.8
dominate the region, accounting for more than 80 percent of the total land surface.
Individually none of these Index groups represent less than 25 percent of the total area.

Fig.- Dissection Index Map (After D.

Nir)

37
 The high dissection values (between 0.4 and 0.8) are found to occupy the northern
half and also the eastern fringe of the Mayurbhanj upland. Medium dissection values(0.2
to 0.4) are found in a patch in the central portion of the area. The very high and low
dissection values(over 0.8 and below 0.2) neither represent any significant percent of the
total landscape nor do they occupy any continuous tract. Their occurrence is mainly in
isolated scattered patches over the region.
The form revealed by the above analysis is that of an area that is characterized by
medium dissection, with a belt of higher dissection in the northern half and the peripheral
regions .

Simplified Contour Map :-

Prior to the construction of a few specialized contour maps, like the map of
Restored contour and streamline surface map, a map of simplified contours is prepared to
facilitate their construction.
 Fig.- Map of Simplified Contour

38

The table reveals that in the past, prior to dissection, the dominant surface was
between 3000 and 3500 ft (914-1067 m) height range. Also, more the 90 percent of the
area lay over 1500 ft .At present the dominant surface lies between 2000-3000 ft, Which
is more than 50 percent of the total surface.

Comparison between the past and the present surfaces reveal that maximum
landmass has been eroded away from the 3000-3500 ft height range. Previously
38.40percent of the total surface was represented between these altitudes, but now they
contain only 8.10 percent of the total area. The lower altitudes record an increase in their
present area, e.g. over 10 percent in the 500-1000 ft height range.

The sum total of these observations are that previously an extensive area lay
over 3000 ft . This area has been subjected to subsequent dissection, which has reduced
it’s extent. The lower height ranges have gained much areal extent at the expense of this
primitive surface. The form stressed by the map of Restored contours is that of a domal
hill flanked by steep slopes.

Streamline Surface Map :-

The streamline surface ‘‘is that on which the available relief is zero; it is
defined by contours, passed through the intersections of actual contours with principal
streams’’
A streamline surface map is prepared for the upland from the simplified contour
map. The areas are computer between the successive streamlined contours and presented
in a tabular for. A comparative study is also made between the present surface and the
possible future surface.
A study of the table below reveals that in future after the erosion of the
interfluve area the surface contained within 1000-1500 ft height range will be the most
dominant in the region, by accounting for nearly 25 percent of the total surface area. Also
the area will be more or less equally distributed between 500 and 3000 ft altitudinal
ranges
Fig.- Streamline Surface Map (after Dury)
40

CHAPTER – 8
MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SELECTED DRAINAGE BASINS OF
THE MAYURBHANJ UPLAND

The importance and significance of morphometric analysis of drainage basins, which

are considered to be standard geomorphic units, have been felt over since the publication of
the classic paper by Horton. In the present work morphometric analysis has been done for all
the major drainage basins of the Mayurbhanj Upland of Odisha. The main purpose of this
study is to identify homogeneity or heterogeneity between the drainage basins which in turn
is expected to give some clues for tracing the geomorphic evolution of the region as a whole.

All numerical data requited for applying various morphometric techniques have been
gathered from topographical maps published by the survey of India. The largest available
scale, i.e. 1:63,360 has been consulted for the morphometric analysis that follows.

Graphical Analysis of the Rivers :-

The Graphical Methods in river analysis usually involves construction of profiles

along and across the river.

(a) Longitudinal River Profiles :-

Here height is plotted against horizontal distance along the course of the river.
Longitudinal River profiles have been constructed for all the major rivers of the
Mayurbhanj Upland .
Smooth, flat curves with concavity at the head, which suggest a graded condition,
are obtained for Khairi, Bhandan, Deo-3, and Kalika Nalas.
Breaks of slope appear on the profiles of Deo Nala-1 at 2000 ft, Andhari Nala at
1750 ft, Kantiali Nala-1 at 2000 ft, Kala Nala at 1750 ft, Salindi Nala at 1750 ft, Tel Nala
at 2250 ft, Sun Nala at 2250 ft, Gobar Jhora Nala at 2000 ft, and Palpala Nala at 2250 ft .
An abrupt and imposing break of 1308 ft, appears on the profile of Burhabalanga at an
altitude of 2150 ft, which is the site of Barehipani waterfalls. Considering all these breaks
 it may be stated that three main breaks are prominent in the area at 2250 ft, 2000 ft, and
1750 ft . The other break at 2150 ft. being formed by lowering the elevation from 2250 ft.
A characteristic feature displayed by all these streams with breaks in their profiles is that
they show a graded or nearly graded reach above and below the break. Also, the
magnitude of vertical extent involved in these breaks is considerable, being never less
than 200 ft .

(b) River Cross Profiles :-

This method involves drawing of simple profiles across the river valleys. Valley
Cross profiles have been constructed for some selected rivers of the area. Serial profiles
have been constructed for each river at 3 miles interval starting from the head, and then
they have been arranged in a superimposed fashion on a single frame.
 The valley cross profiles of Burhabalang River, Khairi Nala, Bhandan Nala and
Deo Nala characteristically reveal a few common characteristics.

(1) Valley width does not increase down-stream. Instead there is alternate constriction and
widening of valleys at the higher reaches of these rivers.
(2) Some flat valley bottoms are seen in between V-shaped valley bottoms in the upper
parts of the streams.
(3) Valley depth is seen to be maximum in the middle part of the rivers.

42
Fig.- Cross Pofiles of Selected Rivers
 43

Conclusions Deduced from Graphical Analysis of the Rivers :-

The longitudinal profiles of the rivers of Mayurbhanj Upland generally show a graded
reach in their upper courses, and then some of these are interrupted by sharp increase in
gradient that occur at 1750 ft, 2000 ft and 2250 ft elevations . A rapid loss of height, it’s
magnitude varying from 200 to 500 ft is experienced within a mile . Following this break, the
profiles again flatten out in graded curves for the rest of their courses within the study area .
The magnitude of vertical extent involved in the break of the profile of Burhabalang is a
problem because it does not confirm to the general pattern displayed by the breaks of profiles
in the region . The solution of all the breaks in profile can not be found in morphometric
analysis alone, and hence help is taken of other “tools” as described later .

The valley cross profiles appear to denote different stages of evolution of the valleys
for the classic sequence of youthful valley passing into mature and old valley is not
represented here . Of course, the fact that the rivers are not represented to their full lengths is
a conspicuous factor that will affect the valley profiles, but the intermediate stretches of wide
valleys between narrow valleys are portentuous of either structure control or multicyclic
nature of the valleys .

Cartographical Analysis of the Drainage :-

Cartographical maps reveal areal distribution of some geomorphic features .The

Divide Map has been adopted for drainage basin analysis .

Divide Map :-

In this map, all water divides creast lines are mapped by different categories and
indicated by different weights of line . Possible migrational tendencies are estimated from the
contour map as follows : “Whatever hypothesis is adopted of the manner of slope retreat, it
may be assumed that other things being equal, a stream with a steeper gradient will develop
headwards more rapidly than on the gentler” .
 As described above, a Divide Map has been prepared for the Mayurbhanj Upland .
All possible migrational tendencies are indicated by arrows pointing in direction of drainage
with lower gradients.

Analysis :-

The primary water divide lies more or less in a north-south direction along the centre
of the area . The secondary divided are found to radiate from this primary divide without any
definite pattern of alignment . The migrational tendencies of the secondary divides are all
directed centrally towards the greater evolution . Rivers that have a possibility neighbouring
streams are Burhabalang River, Sanjo Nala, Gabar Jhora Nala, Seni Nala, Tel Nala and Bhirol
Nala