Class - 1

Instrumentation - subject that deals with measurement, communication and control. It

is the application of instruments to measure, indicate, record, transmit and control.

Instrument - device which measures, indicates, records or transmits a process value.

Process Control - technique where different control variables of a process are

maintained at their desired values in order to obtain major quality products at lesser
cost along with maintaining the safety aspects of the process plant.

Automation - a set of technologies that results in operation of machines and systems

without significant human intervention and achieves performance superior to manual
operation. It is used in industry to obtain quality products at lesser cost.

Note : Automation Systems may include Control Systems but the reverse is not true.
Control Systems may be parts of Automation Systems. The main function of control
systems is to ensure that outputs follow the set points.

Advantages -
● Consistency and accuracy in rate of production
● More economic use of power (may be fuel of electric energy)
● Reduction of physical effort
● Qualitative and quantitatively better product

Process Variables -
● Control Variable - The variable
of the process plant which is
controlled in order to achieve the
best performance of the Process.
(Temp of heat exchanger Outlet)
● Load Variable - The variable of
the process plant which causes
the deviation of control variable
from set value (Feed flow rate, oil feed temp, ambient temp)
● Manipulated Variable - The variable of the process plant which needs to be
manipulated in order to adjust the deviation [deviation may occur due to load
variables] to achieve set values. (Steam flow)
● Set Points - Desired value of the output.
● Deviation / Error - Difference between Set points and control variables.
● Signal

Process Control System Vs. Speed Control System -

● In a process control system the corrective action requires certain time delay
whereas a speed control system is a fast responding system.
● Process plant itself is a complicated part of the control loop, so detailed static
 and dynamic study of the plant is required, but the speed control system is quite
easier to design.
● Most of the processes have the property of inherent regulation by which a certain
flow of energy to a process may be maintained so that it can attain a steady state
condition. This kind of mechanism is not present in the speed control system.

Characteristic parameters of a process plant -

• Self Regulation - the property of a process plant by which the process attains a
steady state by its own action whenever any disturbance is produced in the
process after a certain time delay.
• Potential value - the value of the process variable maintained at a steady state
condition due to the effect of self regulation of the process.
• Process Reaction Rate - the maximum rate of change of control variable following
a state change of the final control element in a control loop.
• Process Resistance - This is the obstruction to the flow of the process quantity by
a process device or element. It is analogous to electrical resistance of a conductor.
• Process Capacitance - The Process Capacitance of a storage tank is defined to
be the ratio of process quantity stored to the process potential value. It is
analogous to electrical capacitance of a conductor.
• Process Time lag - The differential time between the instant of occurrence of
disturbance in a process and the instant at which the corrective action is produced
is called Process Time lag.
1. Distance-velocity time lag (Dead time) - Time taken by a process fluid to travel
distance between the point of occurrence of a disturbance and the point where it
is detected. If this distance is d and fluid flows with velocity V then dead time
L=d/V.
2. Transfer time Lag - The time lag produced in a system due to delay in
transferring energy from source to process through resistance and capacitance.
It is the time lag produced between the output and the input characteristics at the
steady state when the input signal is a ramp input.

Tank Flow Modeling -

1. 2.

3.
Time Lag -
1. Overall Process 2. Distance - Velocity 3. Transfer

Example -
A pressure vessel of capacitance C is being pressurized from zero initial pressure
through a valve of process resistance R. Find the expression for dynamic characteristics
of the system.
1. When the pressure vessel is being pressurized from a constant pressure source.
2. When it is being pressurized from a constant speed pump.

In general let at any instant the inlet pr. is P1 and

vessel pr. is P2. Hence the flow rate of fluid through the
valve will be q=(P1-P2)/R.
So, Taking Laplace Transform,
Electrical Equivalent

Case I - Pressure vessel is being pressurized from a constant Pressure. So P1(t) =Pc

=> =>

Case II - P1(t)=Kt, K is the rate of increase of pressure at the outlet of the pump.

And we know .
Class - 2
Feedback Control System (Control
variation measurement) - The control
system in which the control variation is
measured by measuring unit and this
measured value is fed back to the controller
which compares the measured value with
the desired value and accordingly sense a common signal or control action signal to the
final control element or correcting it in order to counteract any deviation produced.

Drawbacks of feedback control system -

● Is not capable of correcting a deviation produced in the control unit from its
desired value just at the time of detection.

● In many processes there exists a finite delay between the manipulated variable
and its effect on the control variables. For a larger delay the process may be
subject to frequent disturbances during delay time and hence it is very difficult to
restore perfect balance by the feedback control system.

● Since a deviation in a control variation must appear before any correcting action
can start, a perfect control is not possible during the feedback control system.

● The value of the manipulated variables needed to balance the load must be
obtained by trial and error method in a feedback control system.

● The load variables can be divided into various components such as feed rate,
feed composition, feed temperature etc. Hence there must always be at least one
manipulated variable for each independent control load variable.

Feedforward Control system (Load variation measurement) -

The control system in which control variation is
maintained at the desired value by adjusting the
energy input to the process from the direct
measurement of the load variable and their
comparison with the desired value and
calculation of the required energy to the help
of the computer from this comparison.
Advantages -
• When the disturbance is measurable, feedforward control is an
effective means for canceling the effects of disturbance on the system output.
• This is advantageous, since in a simple feedback system, the corrective action
starts after the effect of disturbance is reflected at the output.
• On the other hand, in feedforward control the change in disturbance signal is
measured and the corrective action takes place immediately.
• As a result, the speed and performance of the overall system improves, if
feedforward control, together with feedback action is employed.
F/B-F/Fcontrol - If there is some error in the output, it needs to be corrected using a
feedback control system. In real systems, feedforward is always connected with a
feedback control system.

G(s) = Transfer function of the process (manipulating variable to output)

Gn(s) = Disturbance transfer function (disturbance to output)
Gc(s) = Transfer function of feedback controller
Gf(s) = Transfer function of the feedforward controller
The overall output is :

If we want to select the feedforward transfer function, such that the effect of disturbance
at the output is zero, then the coefficient of N(s) is set to 0. Thus,

or,

Control Action and Controller -

• Depending on modes of control action controllers are of
i. ON-OFF type
ii. Proportional type
iii. P+I
iv. P+D
v. P+I+D
• Depending on type of energy used controllers are of
i. Pneumatic
ii. Electric
iii. Hydraulic
iv. Electronic
– Analog
– Microprocessor based
– Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC)
– PLC
– DDC
– DCS
On-Off Control Action -
1. ON-OFF without differential gap -
If deviation or error signal is defined as (e) = SP-MV (Set Point - Measured Value)
m=max, when e>0 and m=min, when e<0 .
(Control action defined as change in manipulated variable ie. m, because later is the
controlling parameter for the process)
Disadvantage -
The action will take control just when the measured value goes below or above the set
value but the problem with this kind of operation is that the switching will be a
continuous process. When it goes just below 80 degree then the controller will turn on
and it will reach the 80 degree and try to cross 80 degree, then again it will turn off so
switching will be fast and that will cause a mechanical loss.

2. ON-OFF with differential gap -

If e=MV-SP, m=min, when e>ε/2 and m=max, when e<=ε/2. ε = Differential gap.

Proportional Controller -
● m (Change in Manipulated Variable) ∝ e (Error Signal or Deviation)
m=Kce; where Kc, Proportional sensitivity or Gain.
● PB (Proportional Band) is the change in control variable expressed in terms of %
of maximum span for which the final control element traverses its full path.
Say if the controller ranges from 1000C to 10000C, and if 10% PB is set i.e controllable
range is 10% of(1000-100)0C=900C i.e ±450C about set value. So, if the set value is
5000 C then the controller works between the range of (500-45)0 C to (500+45)0 C.
Valve is initially 50% open condition.
Relation Between PB and Proportional sensitivity -
Kc = change in manipulated Variable/ change in error
Kc = %change in manipulated Variable/%change in control variable
Kc = 100/PB
● Offset - Minimum Steady State error that cannot be eliminated by the controller.
Cannot Eliminate Offset - The error signal gets smaller as the controller is trying to
eliminate it. As manipulating signal m ∝ error, m gets so less that it cannot change the
control valve position, hence a small error (steady state) always exists.

Minimizing Offset -
• Increasing Gain of Proportional Controller
• Selecting Proportional Band
• Shifting the set point
• Using integral control action
Mathematical Modeling -
Integral or Reset Control Action -
Integral control action or reset control action is the control action where rate of change
in manipulating Variable is proportional to error.

=> =>

Damping Constant is :

Proportional + Integral Control Action (P+I) -

Integral control action is always used with proportional action.
For PI action, manipulated variable (m) is given by -
Let a step change deviation is produced in the process, i.e, e=0 at t<0 and e=E at t>0

So the PI controller output will be => => **

Note - [**e must be E in the first term of the eq] and at

Thus the integral action time is the time in which the

change in [Link]. due to the integral action is equal to
that due to prop. action. i.e, the time in which the change
due to prop. action repeats itself due to integral action.
That is why the action of PI controller is sometimes
defined in terms of rate of integral action or reset rate or
integral rate which is equal to the inverse of the integral
action time & is expressed in repeats/min.

In the same way as in integral control, we can conclude that the steady state error
would be zero for P-I action. Besides, the closed-loop characteristic equation for P-I is -
; ; for which we obtain the damping constant as:
Proportional + Derivative Control Action (PD) -
Since the derivative action is proportional to rate of change of deviation or error, it is not
used alone in a control system. Since during step change of deviation it will produce an
infinitely large change in manipulating variable producing large overshoot and
undershoot which may be dangerous to the process plant. m = Kce + KcTd (de/dt) +M
e=0 for t<0 and e = Et for t>=0.
So m = KcEt + KcTdE+ M or m-M = KcE(t+Td )
At Td = 0, m-M = KcEt & At t = Td ,m-M = 2 KcTd E

Proportional + Integral + Derivative Control Action (PID) -

m = Kce + Kc/Ti ∫edt+ KcTd de/dt + M
For a ramp change of deviation defined as
e=0 for t<0 and e = Et for t>=0.
PID control action is given by m-M = KcEt + KcEt2/2Ti + KcTdE

PIDD-1 -
The inverse derivative control action is a special type of control action which is used in
very fast processes & is defined as the control action in which the change in man. var. is
inversely prop. to the rate of change of the deviation.

Controller type Control Func. m(t) Transfer Func. m(s)

P m(t)= Kce(t) +M m(s)= Kce(s)

PI m(t) = Kce(t)+ Kc/Ti ∫edt +M. m(s)= Kc /Ti s (1+ Tis )e(s)
PD m(t) = Kce(t)+ KcTd de/dt +M. m(s)= Kc (1+ Td s )e(s)
PID m(t) = Kce(t)+ Kc/Ti ∫edt + KcTd m(s)= Kc (1+ 1/Ti s + Tds) e(s)
de/dt +M.
PIDD-1 m(t) = Kce(t)+ Kc/Ti ∫edt + KcTd m(s)= Kc /Tis (1+ Tis )( (1+
de/dt +Kc/Td/α de/dt+M. Tds) /(1+ (Td s / α )))e(s)

Selection of Controller -
In a particular process plant control loop func. depends on modes of control action and
process characteristics. selected by considering following parameters:
• Max deviation: PD<PID<P<PI<I
• Offset: P>PD
• Proportional sensitivity: PD>PID>P>PI
• Stabilization time: PD<PID<PI<I
Class - 3
Pneumatic Controller -
The major advantages of using pneumatic systems are
(i) they are intrinsically safe and can be used in hazardous atmospheres,
(ii) cheap compared to hydraulic systems (air costs nothing) and
(iii) a pneumatic actuator can generate more torque (force) to its own weight and thus
have a better torque-weight ratio compared to an electrical actuator.
Disadvantage - Slow in response.
Self Operating Controller -

Flapper nozzle amplifier-

Let the supply and output Pr. be P0 and PS. Let the diameter of the fixed restrictor and
nozzle be d1 and d2.
The volume flow rate through the fixed restrictor is and

Since air leaked to the atmosphere through a cylindrical gap of diameter d2 and length
x. At steady state
=>

=>

=>

Pneumatic Relay -
• The major limitation of a flapper nozzle amplifier is its limited air handling capacity.
The variation of air pressure obtained cannot be used for any useful application,
unless the air handling capacity is increased.
• An air relay serves the similar purpose as a power amplifier. It is used after the
flapper nozzle amplifier to enhance the volume of air.

Direct Action Type Reverse Action Type

Motion Balance Type -

Motion Balance Type Controller Motion Balance Type On/Off Controller

 Force Balance Type -

Motion Balance PI Controller

Mathematical Modelling of Motion Balanced PI Controller -

θf θI

θn’ θn” θn’’’

θi

Let the deflection of the flapper due to the deviation of the control variable on the
desired signal is BB1 = θi , so that the deflection of the flapper is θn’ due to feedback
action by feedback below.

AA1 = θf , so that the deflection of flapper away from nozzle due to feedback action is
CC2 = θn”

And due to integral action, the displacement of end A of the motion beam is AA1 = θI so
that the deflection of flapper towards nozzle due to integral action is CC3 = θn’’’ , so net
depression of flapper towards nozzle is θn = θn’ - θn’’ + θn’’’

Electronic Controllers -

Analog PID Controller - these controllers are Integrated Circuit (IC) based.
Digital Controller - In the digital control mode, the error signal is first sampled and the
controller output is computed numerically through a digital processor. The above
 Analog PID Controller Digital PID Controller

equation can be discretized at small sampling intervalT0 i.

This algorithm is
known as Position
Algorithm

This algorithm is known as Velocity Algorithm.

We just need to know the error for three time
instants (ie, at k, k-1 and k-2).
Position v/s Velocity Algorithm -
• The major advantage of the velocity algorithm is that it is of recursive type whereas
for position Algorithm the error values at all the time instants are to be stored .
• Velocity Algorithm calculates the incremental output at each sample instant. As a
result, it requires only to store three previous values: e(k), e(k-1) and e(k-2).
• In the Position algorithm, due to the difference between the set point and the
output variable, it is always possible that the existing error will wind up and the
value of Σ e(k) be large when the switching from manual to auto mode takes place.
But in the velocity algorithm, this will be prevented, since it provides only
incremental change in input. (Switching from auto mode to manual mode is
important in case of instrument malfunctioning, and after repairing, again it is to be
set to auto mode from manual mode)
• Protection against Computer Failure
• Prevention of Integration Windup
• In case of presence of noise in the measurement of the error value at a particular
sampling instant, the controller will immediately act, taking it to be a signal. But in
the position algorithm, the integration term will prevent such a quick action.
Note :- Sometimes, a digital filter with low pass characteristics is used to filter out the
unwanted noise before it reaches the controller input.

Advantages of μP based Controller -

• μP based controller is more economic
• Other than control, it can do several algebraic functions, integral desaturation, s/n
processing.
• S/n processing is much more accurate than analog
• Can perform logical switching operation
• Non-linn system control can also be performed in a much better way
• Integral tracking and bumpless transfer from manual to auto mode can be easily
handled
Error Signal

PID Controller in Automatic Mode Integral Tracking and Bumpless Transfer

MS => Measuring System; FCE => Final Control Element;
SP Xmitter => Set Point Transmitter; A/M Station => Auto-Manual Station;
Computers in Control System

Higher Level Digital Computing Systems (Direct Digital Control)

DPT => Differential Pressure

Transmitter

A centralized digital computer

is used for controlling the
whole control actions. Thus
in case of any malfunctioning
in digital computer, the whole
plant will shut down. There
must be a backup system.
Also there is a huge network
and connection cost.
Class - 4
Controller Tuning - The process of experimentation for obtaining the optimum values
of the controller parameters with respect to a particular process is known as controller
tuning. Controller tuning is very much process dependent and any improper selection of
the controller settings may lead to instability, or deterioration of the performance of the
closed loop system.

Our objective is to find out the optimum settings of the P,I,D parameters, namely

The basic criteria which are to be satisfied in order to obtain the best performance of the
process by an automatic control loop are :
● Decay Ratio: Ratio of 2nd peak overshoot to 1st peak overshoot should be 1/4th.
(In most Industrial applications, this is the most important point)

● Integral Square Error (ISE) : should be minimum.

● Integral Absolute Error (IAE) : should be minimum.

● Integral Time Absolute Error (ITAE): should be minimum.

Different Methods of Controller Tuning:

Ultimate method of Zigler and Nichols - The controller is placed in a closed loop and
is initially set to proportional mode only. The gain of the controller is increased from the
initial value (low value) to a high value Ku (or ultimate gain) so that constant oscillations
can be achieved, and the time period of oscillation Tu and corresponding Proportional
Band PBu
Note :- At low gain, the control variable overshoots and undershoots about the desired
value with decreasing amplitude due to the damping effect of the process. And at high
gain the control variable oscillates about the desired value with constant amplitude.
This method may not be applicable for the process where sustained oscillations with
increasing amplitude may not be permitted.

P mode only
PI mode
PID mode
Damped Oscillation method by Harriot - The controller is placed in a closed loop and
is initially set to proportional mode only. Let Kd be the proportional gain setting for
obtaining 1/4th decay ratio.

Open loop method by Cohen & Coon - the process is assumed to be a stable first
order system with time delay. From the process reaction curve the point of maximum
rate of change of process variable is determined at the point of tangent.

Process Gain K
= Final change in steady state value in %/ Step
change in controller output
= (Final steady state value-initial value)%/(Step
change in controller output)
= Final steady state value in % due to unit step
change of final control element - initial steady
state value (%)

Finding Rr, Lr and K, the index of self regulation is defined by Cohen & Coon as

μ= RrLr/K.

● P mode only

● PI mode

● PID mode
Class - 5
Special Control Schemes -
Ratio Control - Ratio control is a special type of feedforward control where the
disturbance is measured and the ratio of the process output and the disturbance is held
constant. It is mostly used to control the ratio of flow rates of two streams. Flow rates of
both the streams are measured, but only one of them is controlled.
Few examples are:
• fuel-air ratio control in burners,
• control of ratio of two reactants entering a reactor at a desired ratio,
• maintaining the ratio of two blended streams constant in order to maintain the
composition of the blend at the desired value.

Fluid A => Wild Stream (Uncontrolled)

Fluid B => Controlled Stream Cascade Control -
Here, the steam flow rate is being given as input and the temperature of the water outlet
is our desired output. In feedback control system, the temperature of outlet water is
being measured and compared with the set point and the steam flow rate is adjusted
but not measured. (Temperature of inlet steam is not altered).
In order to make this system faster (Cascade control is used), a flowmeter is installed
and is connected to another flow controller and the set point is given by the
Temperature controller from the water outlet.

There are two major functions of

cascade control: to eliminate the effect
of some disturbances, and to improve
the dynamic performance of the control
loop. The effect of disturbances arising
within the inner loop is corrected by the
secondary controller, before it can
influence the output, and the primary
controller takes care of the other
disturbances in the outer loop. As a
result the transient response of the overall system improves.
Advantages:
• A strong (high gain) inner loop reduces the sensitivity and nonlinearity of the plant
and the outer loop therefore experiences less parameter perturbations.
• Cascading makes the use of feedforward control more systematic. In the heat
exchanger example it is possible to measure the water flow and add feedforward
compensation to the flow controller. This would improve the speed of response to
fluctuation in water flow, which is a disturbance .
• Cascade control often makes it possible to use simpler control action than what
could be needed for a single controller. Though the number of tunable parameters
is more in cascade control, a systematic tuning procedure (inner to outer) is
available.
Disadvantages:
• more sensors and transmitters and
• more number of controllers.
For proper operation of the cascade control arrangement, the dynamics of the inner
loop (control valve in the present case) should be considerably faster than the dynamics
of the outer loop process (heat exchanger in the present case). The inner loop
secondary controller is normally chosen as a simple P-type controller with high gain,
while the outer loop primary controller is a conventional P-I controller.
Due to the presence of two loops in cascade control, the stability of the overall system
has to be looked into more carefully.
Considering the different elements of the
arrangement to be linear, the overall feedback
control system can be drawn in terms of the
transfer functions. GP1 is the transfer function
of their primary process and GP2 is their
transfer function of the valve dynamics.
Split Range Control - This type of control is
used, where there are several manipulated
variables, but a single output variable. The
coordination among different manipulated
variables is carried out. The steam discharges
from several boilers are combined at a steam
header. Overall steam pressure at the header
is to be maintained constant through a
pressure control loop. The command from the
pressure controller is used for controlling
simultaneously the steam flow rates from the
boilers in parallel. Clearly, there is a single
output variable (steam header pressure) while
there are a number of manipulating variables (discharge from different boilers).

Override Control -
F/B flow control with override control of level -
We are maintaining the upper and lower
level of the tank by controlling the flow
control system along with that there is a
level measuring system and there is a
level controller(LIC), it may choose flow
controller or level controller depending
on requirement, say when level goes
below the upper set value the pressure
at the column will decrease, accordingly
the flow rate will be changed so in turn
the path will get closer and the flow rate
will decrease but the selector switch
instantaneously selects the level controller first as it changes the level so this will take
the corrective action instead of the flow controller, and the the selector will transmit the
controller output to the control panel. This function is called overriding. It is used for
delicate systems where due to small change of say level or other parameter it may get
affected. For these systems, along with the existing control system there is an overriding
element for selecting the controller output in order to get faster or quick response.
Override Control of Level for Min/Max Position -
For say maximum position there is a level
one controller (LIC1) for minimum position
and there is a level two (LIC2) controller.
And there is another selector switch.
Normally, there is a selector which selects
the flow controller path, but if level change
just suddenly then the selector will transfer
the level controller output to the control bar
and if it is for upper level then it will choose
the upper level controller output and if it is
for lower level then it will choose the lower
level controller response. So in order to
choose lower or upper level there is another selector controller FYC1. So for delicate
systems where minute changes in process variables may affect the production, we use
this arrangement.

Final Control Element (FCE) -

Different types of Actuators - Depending on the types of operating energy, the
actuator may be of different types which are pneumatic, hydraulic, electric or any
combination of these and so the final control elements may be classified as pneumatic
diaphragm actuator control valve, butterfly control valve, hydraulic control valve, electric
motor actuated control valve, stepper motor actuated control valve etc.

Pneumatic Control Valve

A pneumatic actuator is a device that converts control
output into the motion of the valve stem. The actuator
may operate directly by the output signal of a controller
or may employ a separate source of compressed air to
produce the movement of control valve stem by a
device called pilot valve. The pneumatic actuator may
be of different types depending on its principle of
operation (air-to-open or air-to close type).
The diaphragm is generally made of neoprene rubber
or metallic wire reinforced neoprene rubber supported
by a backing plate at the center. The air pressure acting
on the diaphragm is F=(m-m0)A ; where m0 is the
control action signal at no or zero stroke of the control
valve stem and m is the control action signal for a given
condition of the process control variable. Let this force produce a displacement x of the
control valve stem which is again equal to the amount of compression or elongation of
the restoring spring. So if K is the spring constant, then F=Kx =(m-m0)A

The standard range of actuator input signal or controlled output signal is 0.2 to 1 Kg/cm2
and this stroke length of the valve stem is generally lies between ¼’’ or 3’’ or 6 or 75 mm
but the standard allowable stroke length is generally limited to 1’’ or 25 mm. The
performance of the spring actuator will be satisfactory if the following conditions are
maintained :
 ● The force on the stem should not be high such that the material of the stem may
operate within elastic limit.
● The natural frequency of vibration should not be much greater than 25 Hz where
natural frequency is determined by the relation , where K = Spring
constant and M = Mass of the whole system.
● The static frictional force must be limited to a low value such that the effective
hysteresis loss is very small. If mr is the range of the input pneumatic signal, then
the hysteresis loss will be less than 1% of full travel when the static frictional
force satisfies the relation .

Note :- This is a very serious limitation since it produces a limiting value of the
frictional force which may not be achieved in practical cases. E.g for control
signal of 3 to 15 psi and actuator diaphragm of effective area 100 inch2, the
maximum value of frictional force that should be maintained to obtain hysteresis
loss 1% of full travel is only.

● The total thrust force due to the process fluid acting in one direction should be
less than m0A, where m0 be the input signal at zero stroke and also this force
should be constant throughout the whole range of the controller, otherwise the
input signal will not be linearly related with the stem movement.
● The characteristics of the spring and diaphragm should be within the elastic limit
and the effective area of the diaphragm and spring constant should remain
constant throughout the full stroke of the valve stem, otherwise linear relation
between input signal and valve stroke cannot be maintained.

Valve Positioner - When static friction, hysteresis and unbalance thrust force acting on
the motion of stem of a control valve are large or the response of the actuator
diaphragm is too slow especially in the case of single seated valve the simple spring
actuator cannot position the plug at the desired position with an accuracy as desired by
the control loop. In this case a valve positioner is used with the spring actuator. A valve
positioner is a device which is used to position the valve stem at the desired position
with high accuracy. It is generally of two types-the valve positioner without booster relay
and valve positioner with booster relay. (Booster relay acts as an amplifier)

Spring Actuator without Positioner without booster relay -

This is the motion balance type. If the signal increases
then this end will move upward direction so the flapper
moves towards the nozzle element, the nozzle feedback
pressure will increase,so the controller output goes to the
final control element, i.e. the diaphragm or the actuator
portion, then the pressure will increase and the stream will
move downward direction which is connected with the
steam.

Spring Actuator with Positioner without booster relay -

If the nozzle feedback pressure increases then the downward pressure on the
diaphragm will increase, so the stem will move downward and as a result point A will
 move downward so point B will move leftward, so due
to this spring force the flapper will move away from the
nozzle direction and again the output pressure will
decrease so this will automatically adjust the seat stem
movement so that the plug can be fitted to the seat
area properly, this is called positional arrangement this
is just a feedback element.

Spring Actuator with Positioner with booster relay - In the positioner of booster
relay, as the feedback pressure of flapper-nozzle system is further amplified by the
booster relay such that the desire volume of air may
be supplied to the actuator for producing a certain
movement of the valve stem. With the increase of
input signal the flapper moves towards the nozzle such
that nozzle flapper pressure increases and so the
bellows element of the booster relay connected to the
nozzle chamber moves the pilot valve towards the
exhaust port. This increases the feedback pressure of
the relay chamber and so the pressure in the actuator
increases and the stem moves downward until it
attains the correct desired position.
Advantages of Positioner -
• It helps in overcoming the stem friction through high open loop gain.
• It accurately positioned the control valve stem at the desired value irrespective
of the bench-range or unbalance force on the valve stem.
• The hysteresis effect is reduced by the positioner and is linear between the
valve movement and control signal is improved by the action of a positioner.
Since the effect of static friction is counterbalanced by the amplified signal
produced by the positioner.
• The positioner with booster relay can handle much frictional force of a large
control valve.
• The variable thrust forces acting on the stem cannot disturb the accurate
position of the stem due to the action of the positioner.
• The speed of response of a control valve is increased by the action of booster
relay in a positioner.

Springless Actuator - The restoring force to the diaphragm is provided by the

compressed air at a control pressure maintained by a pressure regulator. It may be with
or without a positioner.

Piston Actuator Springless Actuator Pneumatic Motor Actuator

Class - 6
Control Valve - The control action in any control loop
system, is executed by the final control element. A control
valve essentially consists of a plug and a stem. Control
valves are available in different types and shapes. They
can be classified in different ways; based on: (a) action,
(b) number of plugs, and (c) flow characteristics.
Control valves operated through pneumatic actuators can
be classified as either (i) air to open, or (ii) air to close
depending on action.

Depending on the several conditions of the pipelines a large variety of control valve
body has been designed. But they can be broadly divided into three categories:
• Sliding stem or globe body - has straight or angle configuration and also it may
have different types of end connections to meet the requirement.
• Rotating stem body - the stem rotates about an axis and the plug of the control
valve also rotates about that axis in order to close or open the valve port, e.g.,
butterfly valve, ball valve etc.
• Specialized body - a special structure of the body is designed in order to handle
slurry of very low flow, very high pressure of the order of 2500 psi e.g., weir type
valve, gate valve etc.
The parts of the control valve which are in contact with the process fluid are together
called trim of control action. The control valve plug, stem, seat and cage are together
called the trim of the control action. Control valves can also be characterized in terms of
the number of plugs present, as single-seated valve and double-seated valve.

• Single-seated valve has only one seat area. The advantage is that it can more
tightly close the valve than the double seated valve. But the disadvantage is that,
the thrust on the plug due to flowing fluid is very high and so a large diaphragm
area of the actuator is required to produce a force greater than the thrust.

• Double seated plug - In this type of plug, the fluid enters the valve body between
two seats and is thus divided into two streams. As the surface area of the upper
and lower plug are almost equal the thrust force due to the differential pressure
existing across the plug in the process fluid is almost equal and opposite for the
two plugs and so the net force which should be applied to the plug stem is
negligibly small. So the area of the actuator required to produce a force greater
than the net thrust force may be very small. So the valve may be accurately
positioned without the help of a positioner. That is why double seated valves are
widely used in 3-term controllers. The disadvantage of double seated valve is that
since the force applied on the plug by the actuator is small so the tight shut off
condition of the valve at low flow condition cannot be easily obtained.
The single or double seated plug may be of three types depending on process
condition, which are:
• The Poppet type plug is used for ON-OFF controllers, where the movement of
valve stem is small and the stem is positioned between maximum and minimum
and orifice area increases almost linearly with the valve lift.
• V-port and Contour type plugs are used for proportional and other modes of
controller and the choice of the particular plug depends on the flow characteristics
of the control valve.

Poppet Type
(Double Seated)
V-port Type Poppet Type (Single Seated)

Flow Characteristics - It describes how the flow rate changes with the movement or
lift of the stem. The shape of the plug primarily decides the flow [Link] flow
characteristic of a valve is normally defined in terms of (a) inherent characteristics and
(b) effective characteristics.
An inherent characteristic is the ideal flow characteristics of a control valve and is
decided by the shape and size of the plug. On the other hand, when the valve is
connected to a pipeline, its overall performance is decided by its effective
characteristics.

Ideal Characteristics - The control valve acts like an orifice and the position of the plug
decides the area of opening of the orifice. Recall that the flow rate through an orifice can
be expressed in terms of the upstream and downstream static pressure heads as:

Now the area of the control valve opening (a) is again dependent on the stem position,
or the lift. So if the upstream and downstream static pressure heads are somehow
maintained constant, then the flow rate is a function of the lift (z), i.e.
The shape of the plug decides how the flow rate changes with the stem movement, or
lift; and the characteristics of q vs. z are known as the inherent characteristics of the
valve. Let us define

where, qmax is the maximum flow rate, when the valve is fully open and zmax is the
corresponding maximum lift. So equation can be rewritten in terms of m and x as:
The valve sensitivity is defined as dm/dx, or the slope of the curve m vs. x. All the
characteristics are to be determined after maintaining constant pressure difference
across the valve. In this way, the control valves can be classified in terms of their m vs x
characteristics, and three types of control valves are normally used are:

• Quick Opening Characteristics: This

is generally found in ON-OFF control
valves where about 90% of maximum
flow is obtained for about 30% of stem
movement and from the figure it is
found that below 90% flow is almost
linearly related with percentage lift of
the valve stem.
• Linear Characteristics: In this case
the flow rate is linearly related with the
stem movement (dm/dx =1) so that for any stem position the flow rate.
Generally, V-port valves have this type of characteristic.
• Equal % Characteristics: It is that characteristics used in which % change in
stem position produces an equal % change of flow,
e.g., for a valve having 60 lit/min at 50% stem position will have [60 + (10% of 60)]
lit/min flow when stem position is increased by 10% from 50% to 60% but in case
of linear valve, flow will be

For an equal percentage valve, the flow characteristics are mathematically expressed
as: dm/dx=βx, where β is a const. The expression indicates that the slope of the flow
characteristics is proportional to the present flow rate, justifying the term equal
percentage. This flow characteristic is linear on a semilog graph paper. The minimum
flow rate m0 (flow rate at x=0) is never zero for an equal percentage valve and m can be
expressed as: m=m0eβx
In this type of valve a tight shut off condition is not possible even at the extreme
minimum position of the stem movement. As a result at the minimum position of the
stem there is a leakage.. So for this type of valve a term called Rangeability (R) is
defined as follows:

The flow rate at any stem position is given by

Effective Characteristics -
The ideal characteristics of a control valve is decided by the shape of the plug, and the
pressure drop across the valve is assumed to
be held constant. But in practice, the control
valve is installed in conjunction with other
equipment, such as heat exchanger, pipeline,
orifice, pump etc. The elements will have their
own flow vs. pressure characteristics and
cause additional frictional loss in the system
and the effective characteristics of the valve
will be different from the ideal characteristics.
Let us consider a control valve connected with a pipeline of length L in between two
tanks. We consider the tanks are large enough so that the heads of the two tanks H0
and H2 can be assumed to be constant. We also assume that the ideal characteristic of
the control valve is linear. So where K is a constant and z is the stem
position or lift. The pipeline will experience some head loss that is again dependent on
the velocity of the fluid.

From eq(10), it can be concluded that q is no

longer linearly proportional to stem lift z,
though the ideal characteristics of the valve
are linear. This nonlinearity of the
characteristics is dependent on the diameter of
the pipeline D; i.e. smaller the pipe diameter,
larger is the value of α and more is the
nonlinearity. The nonlinearity introduced in the
effective characteristics can be reduced by
mainly (i) increasing the pipeline diameter, thus
reducing the head loss, (ii) increasing the
pressure of the source H0, (iii) decreasing the
pressure at the termination H2.
The effective characteristics of the control valve
shown in Fig.7 are in terms of absolute flow rate
(q vs z). The effective characteristics (m vs x)
will deviate upwards.
Thus linear valves are recommended when pressure drop across the control valve is
expected to be fairly constant. On the other hand, equal percentage valves are
recommended when the pressure drop across the control valve would not be constant
due to the presence of series resistance in the line. As the line loss increases, the
effective characteristics of the equal percentage valve will move closer to the linear
relationship in m vs. x characteristics.
The performance of a control valve is sometimes defined by the term “Turn down” or
“Turn down Coefficient” or “Turn down factor” is defined as

Control Valve Sizing - The proper size of the control valve is selected such that control
of flow over a wide range is possible. The pressure drop, flow and specific gravity
determines the selection of a control valve. In ideal condition the flow passing by a
control valve is where G = Specific gravity, A = Opening area of the control
valve port and K = Proportionality constant .
There are other characteristics such as type of the fluid i.e., gas or liquid, critical flows
condition for gasses and vapors, viscosity of the liquid also influences the valve sizing.
To select a valve the flow condition has to be such that the process characteristics and
the valve characteristics must match with each other so that non-linearity of the overall
control loop may be eliminated. e.g., if the control valve is oversized then the minimum
controllable flow is too large and if it is undersized then the required maximum flow of
the process may not be provided by the valve. Hence the proper sizing of the control
valve is always necessary and it is selected and designed by correcting the ideal
discharge constant K.
In order to sizing a control valve by this method a factor called the flow coefficient factor
or valve coefficient factor or factor is defined by the relation where
and K/ = corrected value of K.
This Cv factor is defined as the number of US gallons of water flowing per minute at
600F through a fully open control valve under pressure drop of 1 psi. For liquid, steam
and gas the correction factors due to temperature, specific volume and specific gravity
are considered and flow equation for these three types of fluids for a control valve
position Cv at a differential pressure ΔP is given by
For liquid:

For steam:

For gas:

Where Cv Valve coefficient , ΔP Pressure drop across the valve in KN/m2

P= Inlet pressure in KN/m2
G= Specific gravity
V= Specific volume of steam in m3/Kg
T = Temperature in 0C
1 US Gallon = 3.8 Lit
Depending on above equations the size of a control valve is selected by the following
steps:
● Step1 - For a particular process under control first determine the maximum value
of flow rate required to maintain control variation under any condition of the
process operation. This gives the normal maximum flow rate. The value of flow
rate that will be required for most of the time. This gives the normal flow rate.
Minimum flow rate required to sustain the process variation under any process
condition. This gives the normal minimum flow rate.

● Step2 - Select the maximum flow rate which the control valve is to provide. This
is generally selected to be 1.4 times the normal maximum flow rate.

● Step3 - Select the type and style of control valve for best operation. For this
selection the rangeability of the valve has to be selected such that the minimum
controllable flow rate is generally smaller than the normal minimum flow rate.

● Step4 - Calculate the pressure difference at the control valve at the maximum
flow rate considering a pressure loss.

● Step5 - Determine the control valve size from the manufacturer monograph chart
or by calculating value from the flow equations of the control valve. Now if the
fluid viscosity is high or the velocity of fluid is exceptionally low then the size
coefficient will be low and the manufacturer should be asked to determine for
that condition of the process.

● Step6 -
In this step the characteristics coefficient, defined by
=diff. in pr. when cv is fully opened/ diff. in pr. when cv is fully closed.

If α<0.1 or

where, Q = normal flow rate and Qmin = normal minimum flow rate.
Then the control valve will be required to operate at less than 2% of total lift.
In this case the control valve should have a powerful actuator and accurate valve
seat and plug or the difference pressure head should be increased by selecting
the larger pumps, larger line size and minimizing the line loss.
Class - 7
Transmitter -

The process variable is to be measured by measuring instrument and then the

measured signal is to be transmitted to the controller or comparator where the said
value or the desired value is compared with the measured value rather than the
measured value is compared with the desired signal. Since mostly the control loops are
feedback control systems, there is an important role of the transmitter, which transmits
signal from process to the controller and the control action signal is again sent to the
final control element so that the energy adjustment can be done. so depending on type
of energy :
(a) Pneumatic type -

For pneumatic transmitters there is a flapper nozzle system and pneumatic amplifier or
relay. The transducing signal from the measuring device is sent to the flapper unit so
that the displacement of flapper nozzle can be changed and accordingly the nozzle
feedback pressure changes, that is the controller output or the transmitter output and
that sends to the pneumatic relay since the signal is very low. In order to amplify this
there is a Pneumatic relay and the signal sent to the receiver end is the pneumatic
signal of 0.2 to 1 kg per cm2 or 3 to 15 psi. There are two types of receiver called
receiver gauge at the receiver end which is typically of the range of 0.2 to 1 kg per cm2
or 3 to 15 psi and pressure gauge that may be of any range.

(b) Electrical type -

there is a transmitting Pot. Potentiometric circuit like say for a level control system for a
tank unit, if the level changes and say there is a float for measuring the level. Then if the
level changes accordingly the float Position will change and that will be connected as a
potentiometer circuit. So the electrical output from this potentiometer will change then
accordingly the current or voltage signal gets transmitted in terms of current signal, so
the measured electrical parameter will change. For electrical type transmitters there
exists a transmitting port in order to transmit the signal. The current signal is typically in
the 4 to 20 mA range.

(c) Electronic type -

This is one stage advancement over an electrical type transmitter, just like the signal is
again an electrical signal but there is a pre-amplifier and then amplifier or filter rectifier
circuit is used. All these are voltage devices so before transmission the voltage to
current conversion is required and then it is sent to the receiver and through the
transmission line. There is an additional unit called a preamplifier. This is called an
instrumentation amplifier. This is a high input and low output impedance in order to
avoid the error of loading and another function of preamplifier is that of impedance
converter, low impedance devices like filter, rectifier or amplifier, the low output
impedance can be connected at the other side. Amplifier is used for Signal amplification
and noise reduction. Preamplifier being an instrumentation amplifier, this is used to
minimize the noise due to its differential input as instrumentation amplifier has
differential input in order to reduce noise effect.
Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter -
The enclosed chamber contains Mercury
within a mercury tube (has high viscosity
and compressibility) and is connected
with the DP cell through the jacketed
pipe. DP is the (primary unit of
transmitter) differential pressure
transmitter where there is a high
pressure side and low pressure side and
accordingly it changes the movement of
the flapper unit. The secondary unit is the
flapper nozzle and relay system. If the
pressure of the mercury chamber
increases then the pressure on the
jacketed pipe will increase and pressure
will rise at the left side of the DP cell
separated by two [Link] right side is open to atmosphere, that means when
the pressure at left side increases, hence the net pressure acts towards right, so the
motion beam supported by some pivot and with respect to this pivot the upper portion
will try to move leftward, as a result the flapper will move towards nozzle direction, so
nozzle feedback pressure will rise. When the input pressure P increases the output
pressure P0 will also increase. Again that depends on the use of relay type - direct
action or reverse action type.
Pneumatic Level Transmitter -
This is like a potentiometric system, say
in a tank there is a float, if the level
changes say if level goes downward then
the weight of the float will increase so the
float will move downward with respect to
the pulley. Since it is pivoted, the left
edge will upward and the right edge will
try to move downward, that means it will
move away from the nozzle direction so
the nozzle feedback pressure will
decrease, as a result the output pressure
will decrease. So this should be chosen
as direct action.

Pneumatic Temperature Transmitter -

In the Thermo well the thermometer is embedded and a furnace. Mercury field jacketed
pipes which are normally stainless steel. When temperature increases, the mercury
 pressure will increase at the lower
portion of this chamber which is
separated by the diaphragm. The upward
pressure on the diaphragm will increase
when temperature increases, as it moves
upward then the beam which acts as a
flapper towards the nozzle element. the
left side will move upward with respect to
Pivot and the other side will try to move
in a downward direction that means
flapper moves away from the nozzle
direction that means nozzle feedback pressure will decrease. When temperature
increases the pressure output pressure decreases so in order to maintain the
proportionate signal this relay should be chosen as reverse action type, that means
when the process variable increases accordingly the output signal can be
proportionately changed.

Pneumatic Flow Transmitter -

Here the primary unit is a DP cell and the
secondary unit is a flapper nozzle unit. The
flow through the air is tapped at the upstream
and downstream. The pressure is compared
with upstream and downstream high pressure
and low pressure side. Here the upstream
and downstream pressure difference is
connected across the DP cell and with
reference to the change the flapper will move
accordingly and we just check what type of
relay should be used - direct or reverse action
type. This is the standard unit called manifold
having a five valve unit where the middle
valve is called equalizer. To maintain the DP
cell (since there is no open to atmosphere
condition) so initially these two pressures
should be equal. In order to maintain the
upstream and downstream pressure, the
equalizer is opened, so that this high and low
pressure is balanced and during
measurement it is closed. and the other four
parts should remain open for the entire time,
this is called manifold.
This is the real process manual from the
second plant that has the Valve and the boiler
drum. This is the three three Valve type
manifold equalizer and high pressure side.
This DP cell high pressure side blow pressure
side is connected to exactly the similar type of
operation this is the detailed plant diagram.
Advanced Level Trans transmitters -

These are electronic and

programmable types, and
the first level is
microprocessor based.
There is a sensor then AD
converter in order to
convert analog signal to
digital then microprocessor and again digital to analog converter and then again the
voltage to current converter is required for Signal transmission. This is the arrangement
of the primary sensor along with the secondary sensor, for compensation, which means
the effect of other parameter change that can be detected. This is the first level
programmable controller which is microprocessor based.

Smart Transmitter -

Nowadays all these are programmable

transmitters and called smart
transmitter, in which the corrections are
applied to the primary sensing signal,
that is the the primary sensing signal
uses microprocessor to process
information which is embedded in the
memory or those in which a
microprocessor is used in conjunction
with the secondary sensor to derive the
corrections of the primary sensor signal are termed as smart transmitter. So this is the
basic block diagram for smart transmitters where the corrections are applied to the
primary sensing signal that means this is to check the healthy condition of the
transmitter itself. This is the use of secondary sensor transmitter in which the
corrections are applied to the primary sensing signal using a microprocessor to process
information which is embedded in memory or those in which a microprocessor is used in
conjunction with the secondary sensor to derive the corrections for the primary sensing
signal are termed as smart transmitter.
Smart features are linearization
characterization and correction of primary
sensor characteristics and inclusion of
Control Function and algorithms to
communicate bidirectionally between
control room and plant and storing
information regarding location, serial
number, range that means data can be
logged. The intelligent features are
adjustment of span and zero. Span and
zero adjustment and adjustment of
damping time constant or response time
and diagnostic or status check that is the
purpose of using a secondary sensor.
Class - 8
Annunciator -
when a particular process variable exceeds the
desired limiting value the annunciator produces
the corresponding alarm signal. There are many
channels, all these are connected with different
process variables each corresponds to separate
process variables and each channel consists of
lamps, in order to produce visual signal (if any
failure occurs in a particular channel) that
corresponding channel signal lamp will glow and
for all the channel there is a common hooter to
produce a huge sound.
There are only three switches
● Test switch - In order to check the health condition of the device itself the test
switch is there. By pressing that all the lamps and the hooter can be checked
now this device mostly relay operated and sometimes it is electronic IC based,
also for electronic systems the advantage is there is a auto correction process,
whenever the correction is over to the particular process control loop after
occurring the error then the signal will automatically reset the corresponding
switch then this additional reset switch may not require.
● Reset Switch - After corresponding correction to the particular process control
loop, be it the instrumental failure or any other reason for showing error in the
particular channel of the annunciator, reset switch is used to press the lamp of a
particular channel to off.
● Acknowledgement Switch - when whenever any failure occurs the
corresponding lamp will glow on and sound will produce audio signal and visual
signal will produce for that particular channel and the plant personnel will press
this switch which means the error is acknowledged by the plant. So after
pressing this switch the hooter will turn off and the corresponding lamp will
remain glowing.