CHAPTER 15

Understanding and Managing Individual Behavior

Management, 15th Edition | Robbins & Coulter | Pearson Education
Detailed Study Notes

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

• LO 15.1 – Identify the focus and goals of individual behavior within organizations.
• LO 15.2 – Explain the role that attitudes play in job performance.
• LO 15.3 – Describe different personality theories.
• LO 15.4 – Describe perception and the factors that influence it.
• LO 15.5 – Discuss learning theories and their relevance in shaping behavior.

Section 1: Focus and Goals of Organizational Behavior (LO

15.1)
1.1 Core Definitions

Behavior The actions of people — what individuals do and say in an organization.

Organizational Behavior The study of the actions of people at work. OB seeks to explain, predict,
(OB) and influence behavior in organizational settings.

1.2 The Organizational Iceberg (Exhibit 15.1)

A key metaphor in OB is the 'organizational iceberg.' Only a small visible portion of an
organization is observable (formal structures, policies, procedures). A much larger hidden
portion includes informal norms, attitudes, emotions, political behaviors, and interpersonal
conflicts — all of which profoundly affect how people behave.

Key Insight

Because most of what drives behavior is invisible, managers must look beyond surface-level actions
and understand the underlying attitudes, emotions, and perceptions of their employees.

1.3 Three Focus Areas of OB

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 • Individual behavior – personalities, attitudes, perception, learning, motivation
• Group behavior – team dynamics, norms, leadership, communication
• Organizational aspects – structure, culture, change management

1.4 Goals of Organizational Behavior

OB has six primary outcome goals that managers aim to understand and influence:

Employee Productivity A performance measure of both efficiency (doing things right) and
effectiveness (doing the right things). High productivity is the
overarching goal.
Absenteeism The failure to show up for work. High absenteeism is costly and
disruptive — organizations must understand its causes (dissatisfaction,
burnout, poor health).
Turnover The voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an
organization. High turnover disrupts operations, raises hiring costs, and
signals deeper cultural or managerial problems.
Organizational Citizenship Discretionary behavior that is not part of formal job requirements but
Behavior (OCB) promotes effective organizational functioning (e.g., helping colleagues,
going the extra mile, volunteering for tasks).
Job Satisfaction An employee's general attitude toward his or her job. High satisfaction
correlates with better performance, lower absenteeism, and lower
turnover.
Counterproductive Any intentional employee behavior that is potentially damaging to the
Workplace Behavior organization or individuals within it (e.g., theft, sabotage, harassment,
tardiness, spreading rumors).

Note: OCB is especially valuable because it represents voluntary contributions beyond contractual duties. It is
strongly linked to job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Section 2: Attitudes and Job Performance (LO 15.2)

2.1 What Are Attitudes?
Attitudes are evaluative statements — either favorable or unfavorable — concerning objects,
people, or events. They reflect how an individual feels about something.

2.2 Three Components of Attitudes

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Cognitive Component The belief/opinion part — what a person knows, thinks, or believes
about the attitude object. E.g., 'My pay is low compared to the market.'
Affective Component The emotional/feeling part — how someone feels about the attitude
object. E.g., 'I am angry that my pay is so low.'
Behavioral Component The intention-to-act part — how a person intends to behave toward the
attitude object. E.g., 'I am going to look for another job with better pay.'

Exam Tip: All three components are interconnected. A change in one often triggers a change in the others. This is
the foundation of cognitive dissonance theory.

2.3 Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction is an employee's general attitude toward his or her job. It is the most
studied attitude in OB.

• High job satisfaction = positive attitude toward the job.

• Dissatisfaction = negative attitude, often linked to behavioral problems.

Job satisfaction is linked to:

◦ Productivity (satisfied workers tend to be more productive)
◦ Absenteeism (satisfied workers are less likely to miss work)
◦ Turnover (satisfied workers are more likely to stay)
◦ Customer satisfaction (satisfied employees deliver better service)
◦ OCB (satisfied employees go above and beyond)
◦ Counterproductive behavior (dissatisfied employees may retaliate)

2.4 Job Involvement

Job involvement is the degree to which an employee identifies with his or her job, actively
participates in it, and considers job performance important to self-worth. High involvement
means the person's identity is tied to their role.

2.5 Organizational Commitment

Organizational commitment is the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular
organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. Three
types exist in broader OB literature: affective (emotional attachment), continuance (cost of
leaving), and normative (obligation).

2.6 Perceived Organizational Support (POS)

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Perceived organizational support is employees' general belief that their organization values
their contribution and cares about their well-being. High POS leads to greater commitment,
reduced absenteeism, and increased performance.

Note: POS is reciprocal — when employees feel supported, they tend to reciprocate through greater effort,
loyalty, and OCB.

2.7 Employee Engagement

Employee engagement occurs when employees are connected to, satisfied with, and
enthusiastic about their jobs. Engaged employees bring discretionary effort — they do more
than the minimum because they want to. Engagement integrates cognitive, emotional, and
behavioral investment in work.

2.8 Attitudes and Consistency

People generally seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and
behavior. When inconsistency (dissonance) occurs, they experience psychological
discomfort and are motivated to reduce it.

2.9 Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or
between behavior and attitudes. It was developed by Leon Festinger. The desire to reduce
dissonance depends on:
• The importance of the elements creating the inconsistency
• The degree of influence the individual believes they have over those elements
• The rewards involved in the dissonance

To reduce dissonance, individuals may: change the attitude, rationalize the behavior, minimize the
importance of the inconsistency, or seek external justification.

2.10 Attitude Surveys (Exhibit 15.2)

Attitude surveys elicit responses from employees through questions about how they feel
about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or the organization. Sample survey items
include:
• 'I have ample opportunities to use my skills/abilities in my job.'
• 'My manager has a good relationship with my work group.'
• 'My organization provides me professional development opportunities.'
• 'I am told if I'm doing good work or not.'
• 'I feel safe in my work environment.'
• 'My organization is a great place to work.'

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2.11 Managerial Implications: Attitudes

Manager Takeaway

Managers should be interested in their employees' attitudes because attitudes influence behavior.
Monitoring job satisfaction through surveys and open communication is critical. Addressing sources of
dissatisfaction proactively reduces absenteeism, turnover, and counterproductive behavior.

Section 3: Personality (LO 15.3)

3.1 What Is Personality?
Personality is the unique combination of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns that
affect how a person reacts to situations and interacts with others. It is relatively stable over
time and across situations.

Note: Personality is shaped by both heredity (nature) and environment/experiences (nurture). Research suggests
heredity is a stronger factor than once believed.

3.2 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI®)

The MBTI® is one of the most widely used personality assessment instruments globally. It
classifies individuals across four dichotomous preference dimensions:

Extraversion (E) vs. Where you direct your energy — outward toward people/activities (E) or
Introversion (I) inward toward ideas/reflection (I).
Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N) How you take in information — through concrete facts and details (S) or
through patterns and possibilities (N).
Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) How you make decisions — through logic and analysis (T) or through
personal values and empathy (F).
Judging (J) vs. Perceiving How you orient to the world — preferring structure and decisiveness (J)
(P) or flexibility and spontaneity (P).

Example types from Exhibit 15.3:

• I-S-F-P: Sensitive, kind, modest, shy, and quietly friendly. Avoids disagreements; loyal and
relaxed about getting things done.
• E-N-T-J: Warm, candid, and decisive; skilled in reasoning and intelligent talk, but may
overestimate own capabilities.
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Critical Note: While MBTI is widely used, its scientific validity is questioned. It does not reliably predict job performance or
other organizational outcomes. The Big Five Model has stronger empirical support.

3.3 The Big Five Model

The Big Five Model is the most empirically validated personality framework. It includes five
broad dimensions:

Extraversion Sociable, talkative, assertive. Extraverts are comfortable in social

settings. Linked to leadership emergence and sales performance.
Agreeableness Good-natured, cooperative, trusting. Highly agreeable people are easy
to work with but may be less assertive in negotiations.
Conscientiousness Responsible, dependable, persistent, achievement-oriented. THE single
strongest predictor of job performance across virtually all occupations.
Emotional Stability (vs. Calm, secure, resilient under stress. Low emotional stability = anxiety,
Neuroticism) moodiness, insecurity.
Openness to Experience Creative, curious, intellectually adventurous. Linked to learning,
adaptability, and innovation.

Key Research Finding

Conscientiousness is the single best personality trait associated with superior job performance across
virtually all job types. Managers should prioritize this trait in hiring decisions.

3.4 The Dark Triad

Three negative personality traits collectively called the Dark Triad have received growing
research attention because of their destructive potential in organizations:

Machiavellianism A measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic, maintain

emotional distance, and believe that ends justify the means. High
Machs manipulate others to achieve goals without moral qualms.
Narcissism A grandiose sense of self-importance; arrogant and requires excessive
admiration. Narcissists can appear charismatic but are exploitative and
have fragile egos.
Psychopathy Lacks concern for others; lacks guilt or remorse when actions cause
harm. Workplace psychopaths can be charming but engage in unethical
and harmful behaviors.

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Note: Dark Triad traits are associated with counterproductive workplace behavior, unethical decision-making,
and toxic leadership. Screening for these in leadership selection is increasingly important.

3.5 Additional Personality Insights

Locus of Control A personality attribute measuring the degree to which people believe
they control their own fate. Internal locus = believe they control
outcomes. External locus = believe outcomes are determined by luck,
fate, or other people. Internals tend to show greater work motivation and
job satisfaction.
Self-Esteem An individual's degree of like or dislike for himself or herself. High self-
esteem individuals are more likely to take risks and set ambitious goals.
Low self-esteem individuals are more susceptible to external influence.
Self-Monitoring The ability to adjust behavior to external situational factors. High self-
monitors are adaptable, politically savvy, and effective in varied social
contexts. Low self-monitors behave consistently regardless of context.
Risk-Taking Propensity An individual's willingness to take chances. Risk tolerance affects
decision-making speed and the types of strategies pursued.
Proactive Personality Describes individuals more prone to take actions to influence their
environments. Proactive people identify opportunities and act on them,
rather than reactively responding to circumstances.

3.6 Emotions and Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Emotions are intense feelings directed at someone or something. Emotional intelligence (EI)
is the ability to notice and manage emotional cues and information in oneself and others.

The five dimensions of EI are:

• Self-awareness – Recognizing and understanding your own emotions and their impact.
• Self-management – Controlling or redirecting disruptive impulses and moods.
• Self-motivation – The drive to pursue goals with energy and persistence.
• Empathy – Understanding the emotional makeup of others; treating people according to their
emotional reactions.
• Social skills – Proficiency in managing relationships and building networks.

Note: EI is particularly valuable for managers and leaders. High EI predicts leadership effectiveness, team performance,
and ability to handle conflict. Some research suggests EI may be as important as IQ for managerial success.

3.7 Personality Types in Different Cultures

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No single personality type is common to all people in a given country. However, a country's
culture influences the dominant personality characteristics of its population. For example,
collectivist cultures may exhibit higher average agreeableness, while individualist cultures
may produce higher average extraversion. Managers in global contexts must account for
cultural influences on personality expression.

3.8 Holland's Personality-Job Fit (Exhibit 15.4)

John Holland's framework proposes that job satisfaction and turnover are linked to how well
a person's personality matches their occupational environment. Six personality types and
corresponding work environments are identified: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social,
Enterprising, and Conventional (RIASEC). The better the fit between personality type and job
type, the higher the satisfaction and performance.

3.9 Managerial Implications: Personality

Manager Takeaway

Managers are likely to have higher-performing and more-satisfied employees if consideration is given to
matching personalities with jobs. Use validated assessments (especially Big Five) in hiring. Pay
particular attention to conscientiousness. Be alert to Dark Triad traits in leadership candidates.

Section 4: Perception (LO 15.4)

4.1 What Is Perception?
Perception is the process by which we give meaning to our environment by organizing and
interpreting sensory impressions. Two people can observe the same event and interpret it
very differently — this is a major source of misunderstanding in organizations.

4.2 Factors That Influence Perception

The Perceiver The perceiver's prior experiences, attitudes, interests, motives, and
expectations all shape what is perceived and how it is interpreted.
The Target Characteristics of the person or object being perceived — appearance,
novelty, motion, sounds, size, background — influence how they are
perceived.
The Context/Situation The setting or environment in which perception occurs. Time of day,
social setting, and prior events all act as filters.

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Exhibit 15.5 (optical illusions) illustrates how the same stimulus can be perceived differently
depending on how one looks at it — emphasizing the subjective nature of perception.

4.3 Attribution Theory (Exhibits 15.5 & 15.6)

Attribution theory explains how we judge people differently depending on what meaning we
attribute to a given behavior — specifically, whether we attribute it to internal causes
(personal characteristics) or external causes (situational factors).

Attribution depends on three factors:

Distinctiveness Does the person behave this way in other situations too? High
distinctiveness = external attribution. Low distinctiveness = internal
attribution.
Consensus Do other people in the same situation behave the same way? High
consensus = external attribution. Low consensus = internal attribution.
Consistency Has the person behaved this way before in this situation? High
consistency = internal attribution. Low consistency = external attribution.

4.4 Attribution Errors and Biases

Fundamental Attribution The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and
Error overestimate the influence of internal/personal factors when judging
others' behavior. E.g., 'He failed because he's lazy' (ignoring that the
task was nearly impossible).
Self-Serving Bias The tendency to attribute personal successes to internal factors ('I
succeeded because I'm skilled') while blaming personal failures on
external factors ('I failed because the test was unfair').

Note: The fundamental attribution error is extremely common in performance evaluations. Managers who commit
this error may unfairly blame employees for failures caused by systemic problems.

4.5 Shortcuts Used in Judging Others

Selective Perception We tend to perceive what aligns with our own background, experience,
interests, and other individual factors. We filter out information
inconsistent with our existing views.

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Assumed Similarity ('Like The assumption that others are like oneself. Managers may assume
Me' Effect) their employees share the same values, work styles, and motivations —
leading to poor communication and decision-making.
Stereotyping Judging a person based on one's perception of the group to which that
person belongs. Stereotypes oversimplify complex individual differences
and often lead to discrimination.
Halo Effect Forming a general impression of an individual based on a single
characteristic (positive or negative). E.g., an attractive or charismatic
person is assumed to be competent.
Contrast Effect Our perception of someone or something is influenced by the context or
comparison. E.g., a good candidate may appear average if they follow
an exceptional one.

4.6 Managerial Implications: Perception

Manager Takeaway

Managers need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions, not to reality. How employees
perceive their work environment, their manager, and organizational fairness is what drives their
attitudes and behaviors — even if those perceptions are inaccurate. Managers should actively work to
ensure accurate, fair perceptions through transparent communication.

Section 5: Learning (LO 15.5)

5.1 What Is Learning?
Learning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of
experience. This definition has three key elements:
• The change must be relatively permanent — not just a temporary alteration.
• It must be reflected in behavior — internal knowledge that does not change behavior is not
truly 'learned' in the OB sense.
• It must result from experience — not maturation or biological development.

5.2 Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a theory of learning (associated with B.F. Skinner) that says
behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior that is rewarded tends to be repeated;
behavior that is punished tends to be suppressed.

Key concepts:
• Positive Reinforcement – Adding a pleasant consequence to increase behavior (e.g., praise,
bonus).
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 • Negative Reinforcement – Removing an unpleasant consequence to increase behavior (e.g.,
removing a tedious task).
• Punishment – Applying an unpleasant consequence to decrease behavior.
• Extinction – Withholding reinforcement to decrease behavior (letting undesirable behavior fade
away).

Note: Managers use operant conditioning every day through the rewards and punishments they administer. Positive
reinforcement is generally the most effective and ethically sound tool for shaping behavior.

5.3 Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory (Albert Bandura) holds that people can learn through observation and
direct experience — not just through the direct reward/punishment cycle of operant
conditioning. Key elements:
• Attentional processes – People learn by observing the behavior of others (models).
• Retention processes – What is observed must be retained (remembered) to influence future
behavior.
• Motor reproduction processes – Observed behavior must be physically reproducible.
• Reinforcement processes – People are more motivated to adopt modeled behaviors that are
reinforced (directly or vicariously).

Key Application

Managers serve as models for their employees. When managers exhibit ethical behavior, collaborative
communication, and strong work habits, employees learn these behaviors through observation. Leaders
who say one thing and do another create confused and disengaged employees.

5.4 Shaping Behavior

Shaping behavior is the process of guiding learning in graduated steps using reinforcement
or lack of reinforcement. Rather than waiting for the perfect behavior to emerge naturally,
managers reward successive approximations toward the desired outcome.

Four methods of shaping:

• Positive reinforcement – Reward behavior that approximates the desired outcome.
• Negative reinforcement – Remove an unpleasant stimulus when the desired behavior occurs.
• Punishment – Apply consequences that discourage undesired behavior.
• Extinction – Withhold reinforcement for undesired behavior until it ceases.

Practical Note: Shaping is most effective when reinforcement is delivered consistently and close in time to the desired
behavior. Schedules of reinforcement (continuous vs. intermittent) significantly impact the speed and durability of behavior
change.

5.5 Managerial Implications: Learning

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 Manager Takeaway

Employees are going to learn on the job — the question is whether managers actively manage that
learning through the rewards they allocate and the examples they set, or allow it to occur haphazardly.
Intentional use of reinforcement, role modeling, and systematic shaping leads to better-trained, more
consistent employee behavior.

Chapter Summary: Review of All Learning Objectives

LO 15.1 – Focus and Goals of OB

• OB focuses on: individual behavior, group behavior, organizational aspects.
• Key outcome behaviors: productivity, absenteeism, turnover, OCB, job satisfaction,
counterproductive behavior.

LO 15.2 – Attitudes and Job Performance

• Attitudes have three components: cognitive, affective, behavioral.
• Key attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, employee
engagement, POS.
• Cognitive dissonance drives individuals to reconcile inconsistent attitudes/behaviors.

LO 15.3 – Personality Theories

• MBTI: E/I, S/N, T/F, J/P — widely used but limited predictive validity.
• Big Five: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness (best predictor), Emotional Stability,
Openness.
• Dark Triad: Machiavellianism, Narcissism, Psychopathy — all linked to workplace harm.
• Additional traits: locus of control, self-esteem, self-monitoring, risk-taking, proactive
personality.
• EI: Self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy, social skills.

LO 15.4 – Perception
• Perception is influenced by the perceiver, target, and context.
• Attribution theory: internal vs. external causes; assessed by distinctiveness, consensus, and
consistency.
• Attribution errors: fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias.
• Perception shortcuts: selective perception, assumed similarity, stereotyping, halo effect,
contrast effect.

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LO 15.5 – Learning Theories
• Operant conditioning: behavior is shaped by its consequences (Skinner).
• Social learning theory: learning through observation and modeling (Bandura).
• Shaping: gradual reinforcement of successive approximations toward desired behavior.

Quick Reference: Key Terms Glossary

Organizational Behavior The study of the actions of people at work.

(OB)
Employee Productivity Performance measure of efficiency and effectiveness.
Absenteeism Failure to show up for work.
Turnover Voluntary or involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization.
OCB Discretionary behavior beyond formal job requirements that promotes
organizational effectiveness.
Job Satisfaction An employee's general attitude toward his or her job.
Counterproductive Intentional behavior that damages the organization or its members.
Workplace Behavior
Cognitive Dissonance Incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or between attitude
and behavior.
Job Involvement Degree to which an employee identifies with and is engaged in their job.
Organizational Degree to which an employee identifies with the organization and its
Commitment goals.
POS Employees' belief that the organization values their contribution and
cares about their well-being.
Employee Engagement Being connected to, satisfied with, and enthusiastic about one's job.
Personality Unique combination of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns
affecting reactions and interactions.
Big Five Model Five personality dimensions: extraversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness.
Dark Triad Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy — three negative
personality traits.
Locus of Control Degree to which people believe they control their own fate.
Self-Monitoring Ability to adjust behavior to external situational factors.
EI The ability to notice and manage emotional cues and information.
Perception The process of giving meaning to the environment by organizing and
interpreting sensory impressions.
Attribution Theory How we judge people differently depending on the meaning attributed to
their behavior.
Fundamental Attribution Underestimating external factors and overestimating internal factors
Error when judging others.

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Self-Serving Bias Attributing success to internal factors and failure to external factors.
Halo Effect General impression of an individual based on a single characteristic.
Stereotyping Judging a person based on perception of a group they belong to.
Operant Conditioning Theory that behavior is a function of its consequences.
Social Learning Theory People can learn through observation and direct experience.
Shaping Behavior Guiding learning in graduated steps using reinforcement.

— End of Chapter 15 Notes —

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