sychological and sociological effects
edit
Excessive heat causes psychological stress as well as physical stress. This can affect
performance. It may also lead to an increase in violent crime.[70] High temperatures are
associated with increased conflict between individuals and at the social level. In every
society, crime rates go up when temperatures go up. This is particularly the case with
violent crimes such as assault, murder and rape. In politically unstable countries, high
temperatures can exacerbate factors that lead to civil war.[71]
High temperatures also have a significant effect on income. A study of countries in the
United States found that the economic productivity of individual days declines by about 1.7
percent for each degree Celsius above 15 °C (59 °F).[72]
Surface ozone (air pollution)
edit
Further information: Ozone § Ozone air pollution, and Ozone § Low level ozone in urban
areas
High temperatures also make the effects of ozone pollution in urban areas worse. This
raises heat-related mortality during heat waves.[73] During heat waves in urban areas, ground
level ozone pollution can be 20 percent higher than usual.[74]
One study looked at fine particle concentrations and ozone concentrations from 1860 to
2000. It found that the global population-weighted fine particle concentrations increased by
5 percent due to climate change. Near-surface ozone concentrations rose by 2 percent.[75]
An investigation to assess the joint mortality effects of ozone and heat during the European
heat waves in 2003 concluded that these appear to be additive.[76]
Impacts on societies
edit
Economic outputs
edit
2009 southeastern Australia heat wave, thermal map
approximate affected area shown in red
Calculations from 2022 suggest that heat waves will shrink the global economy by about 1
percent decrease by the middle of the 21st century.[77][78][6] It has been calculated by the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations that extreme temperatures have caused
US$187 billion of damage between 1991 and 2023.[79]
Heat waves often have complex effects on economies. They reduce labour productivity,
disrupt agricultural and industrial processes and damage infrastructure that is not suitable
for extreme heat.[5][6] In 2016, a marine heatwave in Chile and its subsequent harmful algal
bloom caused $800 million (USD) in export losses for the aquaculture industry as salmon
and shellfish died off.[80]
Agricultural outputs
edit
Further information: Effects of climate change on agriculture
Heat waves are a major threat to agricultural production. In 2019 heat waves in
the Mulanje region of Malawi involved temperatures as high as 40 °C (104 °F). This and a
late rain season scorched tea leaves and reduced yields.[81]
Farmed animals
edit
This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change on livestock § Health impacts of
heat [Link]
Impacts of heat stress on livestock
animals [82]
Once the body temperature of livestock animals is 3–4 °C (5.4–7.2 °F) above normal, this
soon leads to "heat stroke, heat exhaustion, heat syncope, heat cramps, and
ultimately organ dysfunction". Livestock mortality rates are already known to be higher
during the hottest months of the year, as well as during heatwaves. During the 2003
European heat wave, for instance, thousands of pigs, poultry, and rabbits died in the French
regions of Brittany and Pays-de-la-Loire alone.[82]
Livestock can also suffer multiple sublethal impacts from heat stress, such as reduced milk
production. Once the temperatures exceed 30 °C (86 °F), cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and
chickens all begin to consume 3–5% less feed for each subsequent degree of temperature
increase.[83] At the same time, they increase respiratory and sweating rates, and the
combination of these responses can lead to metabolic disorders. One examples is ketosis,
or the rapid accumulation of ketone bodies, caused by the animal's body
rapidly catabolizing its fat stores to sustain itself.[82] Heat stress also causes an increase
in antioxidant enzyme activities, which can result in an imbalance of oxidant and antioxidant
molecules, otherwise known as oxidative stress. Feed supplementation
with antioxidants like chromium can help address oxidative stress and prevent it from
leading to other pathological conditions, but only in a limited way.[84]
The immune system is also known to be impaired in heat-stressed animals, rendering them
more susceptible to various infections.[82] Similarly, vaccination of livestock is less effective
when they suffer from heat stress.[85] So far, heat stress had been estimated by researchers
using inconsistent definitions, and current livestock models have limited correlation with
experimental data.[86] Notably, since livestock like cows spend much of their day laying
down, comprehensive heat stress estimation needs to take account of ground temperature
as well,[87] but the first model to do so was only published in 2021, and it still tends to
systematically overestimate body temperature while underestimating breathing rate.[88]
Infrastructure
edit
Heat waves cause roads and highways to buckle and melt,[89] water lines to burst, and power
transformers to detonate, causing fires. A heat wave can also damage railways, by buckling
and kinking rails. This can slow down or delay traffic. It can even lead to cancellations of
service when rails are too dangerous to traverse by trains.
Heat waves can negatively impact electricity generation, transmission, and distribution,
potentially leading to power outages (blackouts or brownouts). Increased ambient
temperatures significantly reduce the efficiency of both conventional power stations using
oil, natural gas, and nuclear power, and renewable energy facilities using hydropower, solar
power, and geothermal energy, leading to a potential failure to produce enough power to
meet demand. Electric power transmission and distribution systems also lose efficiency as
temperature increases.[90]
sychological and sociological effects
edit
Excessive heat causes psychological stress as well as physical stress. This can affect
performance. It may also lead to an increase in violent crime.[70] High temperatures are
associated with increased conflict between individuals and at the social level. In every
society, crime rates go up when temperatures go up. This is particularly the case with
violent crimes such as assault, murder and rape. In politically unstable countries, high
temperatures can exacerbate factors that lead to civil war.[71]
High temperatures also have a significant effect on income. A study of countries in the
United States found that the economic productivity of individual days declines by about 1.7
percent for each degree Celsius above 15 °C (59 °F).[72]
Surface ozone (air pollution)
edit
Further information: Ozone § Ozone air pollution, and Ozone § Low level ozone in urban
areas
High temperatures also make the effects of ozone pollution in urban areas worse. This
raises heat-related mortality during heat waves.[73] During heat waves in urban areas, ground
level ozone pollution can be 20 percent higher than usual.[74]
One study looked at fine particle concentrations and ozone concentrations from 1860 to
2000. It found that the global population-weighted fine particle concentrations increased by
5 percent due to climate change. Near-surface ozone concentrations rose by 2 percent.[75]
An investigation to assess the joint mortality effects of ozone and heat during the European
heat waves in 2003 concluded that these appear to be additive.[76]
Impacts on societies
edit
Economic outputs
edit
2009 southeastern Australia heat wave, thermal map
approximate affected area shown in red
Calculations from 2022 suggest that heat waves will shrink the global economy by about 1
percent decrease by the middle of the 21st century.[77][78][6] It has been calculated by the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations that extreme temperatures have caused
US$187 billion of damage between 1991 and 2023.[79]
Heat waves often have complex effects on economies. They reduce labour productivity,
disrupt agricultural and industrial processes and damage infrastructure that is not suitable
for extreme heat.[5][6] In 2016, a marine heatwave in Chile and its subsequent harmful algal
bloom caused $800 million (USD) in export losses for the aquaculture industry as salmon
and shellfish died off.[80]
Agricultural outputs
edit
Further information: Effects of climate change on agriculture
Heat waves are a major threat to agricultural production. In 2019 heat waves in
the Mulanje region of Malawi involved temperatures as high as 40 °C (104 °F). This and a
late rain season scorched tea leaves and reduced yields.[81]
Farmed animals
edit
This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change on livestock § Health impacts of
heat [Link]
Impacts of heat stress on livestock
animals [82]
Once the body temperature of livestock animals is 3–4 °C (5.4–7.2 °F) above normal, this
soon leads to "heat stroke, heat exhaustion, heat syncope, heat cramps, and
ultimately organ dysfunction". Livestock mortality rates are already known to be higher
during the hottest months of the year, as well as during heatwaves. During the 2003
European heat wave, for instance, thousands of pigs, poultry, and rabbits died in the French
regions of Brittany and Pays-de-la-Loire alone.[82]
Livestock can also suffer multiple sublethal impacts from heat stress, such as reduced milk
production. Once the temperatures exceed 30 °C (86 °F), cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and
chickens all begin to consume 3–5% less feed for each subsequent degree of temperature
increase.[83] At the same time, they increase respiratory and sweating rates, and the
combination of these responses can lead to metabolic disorders. One examples is ketosis,
or the rapid accumulation of ketone bodies, caused by the animal's body
rapidly catabolizing its fat stores to sustain itself.[82] Heat stress also causes an increase
in antioxidant enzyme activities, which can result in an imbalance of oxidant and antioxidant
molecules, otherwise known as oxidative stress. Feed supplementation
with antioxidants like chromium can help address oxidative stress and prevent it from
leading to other pathological conditions, but only in a limited way.[84]
The immune system is also known to be impaired in heat-stressed animals, rendering them
more susceptible to various infections.[82] Similarly, vaccination of livestock is less effective
when they suffer from heat stress.[85] So far, heat stress had been estimated by researchers
using inconsistent definitions, and current livestock models have limited correlation with
experimental data.[86] Notably, since livestock like cows spend much of their day laying
down, comprehensive heat stress estimation needs to take account of ground temperature
as well,[87] but the first model to do so was only published in 2021, and it still tends to
systematically overestimate body temperature while underestimating breathing rate.[88]
Infrastructure
edit
Heat waves cause roads and highways to buckle and melt,[89] water lines to burst, and power
transformers to detonate, causing fires. A heat wave can also damage railways, by buckling
and kinking rails. This can slow down or delay traffic. It can even lead to cancellations of
service when rails are too dangerous to traverse by trains.
Heat waves can negatively impact electricity generation, transmission, and distribution,
potentially leading to power outages (blackouts or brownouts). Increased ambient
temperatures significantly reduce the efficiency of both conventional power stations using
oil, natural gas, and nuclear power, and renewable energy facilities using hydropower, solar
power, and geothermal energy, leading to a potential failure to produce enough power to
meet demand. Electric power transmission and distribution systems also lose efficiency as
temperature increases.[90]