Materials & Processes

Casting Processes
By: Prof. Sukanta Kundu

B Des Product Design

Sem:
Year: 2025-26
Casting Process
• Sand Casting
• Gravity Die Casting /
Permanent Mold Casting
• Low pressure Die Casting
• High Pressure Die Casting
• Shell Mold Casting
• Centrifugal Casting
• Continuous Casting
• Investment Casting
Sand Casting
Sand Casting
A widely accepted and the oldest known casting process - it can be traced back to
earlier than 1000 B.C.
The process is basic - creating a cavity in the shape of the part and pour molten
metal into it.
The mold that contains the cavity, into which metal is poured, is made of
compressed or compacted sand. The sand does contain other materials that
encourage it to hold shape.
Sand Casting Process
• Step 1: Pattern Making – A physical replica of the exterior part with allowances. Made
of wood, plastic, metal or any suitable material.
• Step 2: Core Making – For hollow castings additional patterns called cores are used to
create these cavities in the finished product. Cores are made in Core box.
• Step 3: Mould Making – Mould is made in two parts by packing sand around the
pattern which is then removed – the imprint becomes the mold cavity.
• Step 4: Melting and Pouring – The metal for casting is melted from solid to liquid state
in a furnace and then poured into the mold.
• Step 5: Cooling and Solidification – The mold with the cast part are held so that it cools
down sufficiently before the part is removed from the mold. Early removal can cause
distortion of the part.
• Step 6: Cleaning - All materials (mold and core sand) that are not part of the finished
casting are removed. Cutting and trimming removes all metal (runner, gate, risers etc.)
which do not belong to the part.
• Step 7: Final Operations - Post-processing sandblasting, grinding, etc. and machining is
done to meet final dimensions and/or finish. Non-destructive testing can be done to
ensure casting quality.
Sand Casting Mold Parts

Core
Cope Print
Sand Casting Mold Parts and Terminology
1. Flask: The flask is the box that contains the moulding aggregate. They are usually
wooden frames.
2. Cope and Drag: The top and the bottom part of a casting arrangement are called
cope and drag respectively.
3. Mould: It is a cavity made out of a pattern (copy of the final desired cast) which is
mostly made of sand.
4. Parting Line: The parting line or parting surface is the interface that separates the
cope and drag halves of the mould, flask, or pattern, and the halves of a core during
some core-making processes.
5. Draft: The draft is the taper on a pattern or casting that permits it to be withdrawn
from the mould.
6. Core Print: A core print is the region added to the pattern, core, or mould that is
used to locate and support the core within the mould. The mould material and the
core then combine to form the mould cavity, the void into which the molten metal
will be poured and solidified to produce the desired casting.
7. Core: The core in sand casting is a device inserted into the mould cavity to create
interior features in the casting such as holes.
8. Core Box: The mould or die used to produce casting cores is known as a core box.
Sand Casting Mold Parts and Terminology
9. Chaplets: Chaplets are the supports for the cores. These are needed particularly when the
cores are very big. Usually, metal pieces are used to support the core. Without chaplets the
core can be displaced and the casting can be spoiled. These chaplets are set-up between the
core and mold surface. Caution should be taken while placing chaplets. Clean, oil and
moisture free pieces should be used as chaplets.
[Link] cup: The molten metal is not directly poured into the mould cavity because it may
cause mould erosion. Molten metal is poured into a pouring basin, which acts as a reservoir
from which it moves smoothly into the sprue.
[Link]: Sprue helps in feeding metal to the runner, which in turn reaches the cavity through
the gates. The sprue may have either straight or taper shape. In straight or parallel sprue,
the metal contracts inwards and is pulled away from the sprue walls
[Link]: A riser is often called a feeder. It is a reservoir and a passage included in a metal
casting mould to avoid shrinkage of metal.
[Link]: A runner is a channel with a reduced diameter used to allow the flow of molten
metal towards the mould cavity.
[Link]: It is the point at which the metal reaches the mould cavity and starts to flow into it.
[Link] Sand: This is also known as foundation sand and is the purest form of sand (silica).
[Link]: The glue that holds the sand grains together is the binding agent. The most
common types of binders are clay & water, Oil, Resin, and Sodium silicate.
Sand Casting Advantages
• Casted parts might be as small as a few millimetres and grams or
as large as metres and many tonnes.
• No other method provides the same options to make intricate
shapes as sand casting.
• The cost of equipment and tooling is low compared to other
manufacturing processes.
• The scrap produced can be recycled back to make another cast.
• It is adaptable and usable for a wide range of materials, from low-
to high-melting-point metals.
Sand Casting Disadvantages / Limitations
• Because of their high porosity, parts are less durable than
machined parts.
• Defects or quality differences including shrinkage, porosity,
pouring metal faults, and surface defects are inevitable in this
process.
• Sand casting has a higher level of porosity than casting methods
like investment casting and die casting.
• If tighter tolerance is required for mating with other parts, a
secondary machining process is often necessary.
• Compared to the cost of materials and tools, processing costs are
considerable.
• It is difficult to remove the thin and little section pattern.
Sand Casting Applications
We know that 70% of the metal castings are from the sand casting process. Some of the
commonly known sand casting products or parts that are manufactured through this process
are pump bodies, bushes, pistons of air compressors, Impellers, engine crankcases & oil pans,
gears, flywheels, and gas & oil tanks.

• Mining and Construction: Sand casting is utilized in the mining and construction industries
to produce equipment components, such as crusher parts, dragline teeth, excavator
buckets, and wear-resistant plates.

• Marine Industry: Sand casting is used in the marine sector to manufacture marine engine
parts, propellers, boat fittings, and other components required for marine vessels.

• Railways: Sand casting is employed in the railway industry to produce components like
railway wheels, brake system parts, and couplings.

• Agriculture and Farm Equipment: Sand casting is used to manufacture parts for
agricultural machinery, including tractor components, plowshares, and irrigation system
parts.
Sand Casting Applications
 Gravity Die Casting /
Permanent Mold Casting
Gravity Die Casting
A permanent mold of cast iron
or steel is used and molten
metal is poured under the
influence of gravity. It can
produce high-quality metal
parts with complex shapes and
a relatively good surface finish.
It provides greater
repeatability, lower labor costs
in comparison to sand casting.
The process is suitable for
medium demand (from 250 to
50,000 units per annum).
Gravity Die Casting Process
• Step 1: Preparing the Die – A high-quality mold is made typically from steel or
cast iron. The design is important as it affects the shape, surface finish, and
dimensional accuracy of the final casting including thermal characteristics.
• Step 2: Heating the Die – The die is preheated to a specific temperature before
pouring metal. This ensures its longevity and better metal flow preventing
premature solidification, reducing porosity and shrinkage in the part.
• Step 3: Pouring the Metal – Liquid metal is prepared in a separate furnace and
skillfully poured in the mold with a controlled flow rate.
• Step 4: Cooling and Solidification – Cooling systems are sometimes applied in
certain areas of the die to ensure uniform cooling of the part.
• Step 5: Die Opening and Part Removal – The die is carefully opened and part is
ejected with precision and care to avoid damaging the casting or the die.
• Step 6: Trimming and Finishing – All excess material, including feeders, runners,
and flash etc. are trimmed. Additional finishing processes such as sanding,
grinding, or shot blasting are done to achieve the desired surface texture.
Materials suitable for Gravity Die Casting
• Steel – Steel is rarely used for die casting except for some low-alloy steels with relatively
lower melting points.
• Magnesium & Alloys – These are commonly used with gravity die casting due to their
low density, very high strength-to-weight ratio, and excellent machinability. The intense
and vigorous flammability hazard that heated magnesium presents is a process risk and
must be carefully managed using either a flux or a nitrogen atmosphere to exclude
oxygen.
• Aluminium Alloys – Aluminum and its alloys are the most common materials for gravity
die casting due to their relatively low melting point and good fluidity when molten.
• Copper Alloys – Copper alloys are widely used in gravity die casting. Copper's high
melting point and greater thermal conductivity present challenges during the casting
process, requiring careful control of the casting parameters.
• Zinc & Alloys – Zinc and zinc alloys, such as ZAMAK, are widely used in gravity die
casting due to their relatively low melting points extends the life of the casting molds.
Their very low viscosity in the melt, and superior casting fluidity allows for the creation
of complex shapes with precision and naturally good surface finish.
• Cast Iron – It can be cast using gravity die casting, but because of its high liquefaction
temperature and generally more complex casting process, it is now uncommon to die-
cast it compared to other materials.
Gravity Die Casting Advantages
• It creates typically high-quality castings, characterized by good surface finish which often
eliminates the need for additional surface finishing.
• When the process is reliably and consistently executed and parameters and alloys remain stable
the process offers good repeatability, and fair-to-good dimensional precision. This is significant
for parts that require tight tolerances and fit with other components.
• The rapid cooling of the molten metal within the steel or cast iron molds leads to a finer grain
structure having higher tensile strength, and are more durable.
• The process is capable of producing complex shapes with thinner walls than those achievable by
sand casting. This leads to lighter components without compromising strength or quality.
• The cycle time in Gravity Die Casting is relatively quick compared to other processes allowing for
a faster production cycle and increased throughput.
• It delivers a cost-efficient approach for manufacturing (250 to 50,000 per annum) and is more
cost-efficient than pressure die-casting at lower volumes.
• It results in less scrap compared to other (non-die) casting methods.
• It can work with an extensive array of materials, encompassing aluminum, brass, bronze, zinc,
magnesium, and copper, and a wide array of their alloys.
• While there is no fixed lifespan for gravity die-cast tools, the molds are expected to last about
100,000 cycles on average before they need to be replaced.
Gravity Die Casting Disadvantages / Limitations
• The process has distinct requirements that impose limitations on design flexibility.
These molds are designed to allow molten metal flow driven solely by gravitational
forces compared to pressure filling of low and high pressure die casting.
• Achieving specific design features, like thin walls and intricate geometries, can be
challenging, since the cavity must split in two and release the finished part,
undercuts are essentially impractical.
• It necessitates a moderately high initial investment in terms of tooling and
equipment – although investment is lower than pressure die casting, it is higher
than sand casting.
• It is most suitable for producing relatively small aluminum and zinc alloy castings
and is less appropriate for manufacturing larger components, as the cost of the die
greatly increases.
• Compared to alternative casting methods, it typically involves longer lead times
primarily for the fabrication of permanent molds.
Gravity Die Casting Applications
• Automotive: engine blocks, cylinder heads, pistons, intake manifolds, and
transmission housings.
• Industrial : machinery parts such as gearboxes, pump housings, and valve bodies.
• Aerospace : aircraft engine parts, brackets, and housings.
• Decorative and functional lighting fixtures : lamp bases, housings, and
ornamental components.
• Household Appliances : washing machine components, oven parts, and
refrigerator components.
• Kitchen utensils : pots and spoons.
• Enclosures : for electronic devices, including computer chassis, audio equipment
housings, and server rack components.
Gravity Die Casting Applications
Low Pressure Die Casting
Low Pressure Die Casting
This Die Casting method uses pressure – rather than gravity – to fill molds
with molten metal such as aluminum and magnesium.
The holding furnace is located below the die and the liquid metal is forced
upwards through a riser tube and into the cavity. Usually, the mold is at, or
above, the level of the metal being poured.
The molten metal is injected under a
low pressure of up to 1 bar into a metal
die. The pressure is applied constantly,
sometimes in increasing increments, to
fill the mold and hold the metal in place
within the die until it solidifies back to
the feed in-gate. Once the cast has
solidified, the pressure is released and
any residual liquid in the tube or cavity
flows back into the holding furnace for
“recycling”.
Low Pressure Die Casting
• LP systems generally fall into three categories: unsealed, sealed, and
vacuum-assisted.
• In unsealed LP systems, the metal is transferred from a furnace through the
use of a pump where an electromagnetic pump is used to lift the metal up
and into the mold.
• The sealed LP systems use a furnace that can be sealed and pressurized; in
this furnace, one or more hollow tubes connect to the top of the furnace
and extend down into the molten metal. The mold is placed on top of the
furnace, the melt in the furnace is pressured and the molten metal is forced
up through hollow tubes into the mold.
• Vacuum-assisted LP systems are similar to the sealed LP systems, except
that a vacuum is applied to the casting prior to/at the same time as
pressurization of the melt.
• The process is then re-initiated. The basic process steps are similar to that of
high pressure die casting.
Low Pressure Die Casting Process
• Step 1: Raise – Air pressure applied to raise molten
aluminium steadily to just below die cavity. 1 mBar raises the
metal 4mm.
• Step 2: Fill – Pressure is increased to fill the mold to the top of
the cavity. This needs to be undertaken steadily to avoid
turbulence, but fast enough so that all casting details get
filled. The rate of fill is described as the flow rate.
• Step 3: Intensification – Once mold is filled, the pressure is
raised to the maximum to ‘squeeze’ the casting, helping to
accelerate solidification, and reduce risk of internal voids.
1000 mBar is possible, but factors such as use of sands cores,
risk of flash, etc. usually prohibit this.
• Step 4: Hold – The pressure is maintained until the casting has
solidified.
• Step 5: Drop – Pressure dropped to zero. The feed drops back
down the riser tube into the holding furnace. Once the casting Low Pressure Die Casting Machine
has hardened, the die is opened and the casting ejected.
Low Pressure Die Casting Advantages
• The filling of pure molten metal improves the purity of castings. Metal quality is high because the melting
and degassing of the melt is done in the same furnace which is pressurized for filling the molten metal
which comes from the middle of the furnace; slag which generally floats on the surface of the liquid
metal, oxides and inclusions tend to settle to the bottom or rise to the surface of the liquid metal.
• Die filling is very smooth and controlled which reduces or avoids tumbling, impact and splash of metal
liquid during filling. This reduces the formation of oxidation slag, risk of porosity that might cause defects
or compromised mechanical performance giving excellent dimensional accuracy and ‘straight-from-the-
mold’ surface quality (which in turn minimizes finishing costs).
• When the casting crystallizes and solidifies under pressure, it can get sufficient feeding and compact
structure. This gives very good strength values to the castings.
• The filling of liquid metal under pressure improves the fluidity of liquid metal, which gives the castings a
clear outline and smooth surface, and is more favorable for the forming of large thin-wall castings than
those achievable by sand casting. This leads to lighter components without compromising strength or
quality, which is particularly important in industries such as automotive and aerospace where weight
reduction is critical.
• Generally, a riser is not required, there is no need for feeders and the non-condensed metal in the riser
can be refluxed to the crucible for reuse improving the recovery rate with a higher material utilization.
• The Low Pressure Die Cast machine and die technology is less complicated – the machines involved are
less costly compared to High Pressure Die Casting machines and the whole process is well-suited to
automation.
Low Pressure Die Casting Disadvantages /
Limitations
• Slower casting cycles – this means the productivity can be relatively slow.
• Minimum wall thickness required is approx. 3 mm (in die). So very thin
castings which can be produced by High Pressure Die Casting may not be
produced in this process.
• Investment in equipment and molds is relatively large compared to Sand
Casting and Gravity Die Casting Processes.
• In the production of aluminum alloy castings, the crucible and riser are in
contact with the liquid metal for a long time, which is easy to be eroded and
scrapped, and will also increase the iron content of the liquid metal and may
deteriorate the performance.
Low Pressure Die Casting Applications
• Automotive: engine components, transmission housings, alloy wheels and
other parts requiring high strength and precision. Specifically, engine
blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts, transmission housings, steering
knuckles, impellers and brackets are made.
• Defence: missile shells.
• Aerospace : lightweight, high-strength components for aircraft and
spacecraft. Specifically, landing gear components, engine housings, and
structural parts of aircrafts are made.
• Low Pressure Die casting is used in manufacturing housings for electronics,
appliances, and other consumer products, where a combination of
strength, durability, and precision is needed. Specifically, appliance
housings, computer chassis, pipe fittings, faucets in bathrooms and
decorative elements.
Low Pressure Die Casting Applications
High Pressure Die Casting
High Pressure Die Casting
This Die Casting is a process in which molten metal is forced under pressure into a
securely locked metal die cavity, where it is held by a powerful press until the metal
solidifies.
The injection of metal into the die cavity is completed in a fraction of a second.
Often, while the molten metal is still held in the die, extremely high pressure is
applied (called intensification pressure). This high pressure compresses any gas
entrapped in the metal and feeds additional metal into the cavity to compensate for
the shrinkage of the metal as it solidifies.
After solidification of the metal, the die is unlocked, opened, and the casting ejected.
After removal of the casting, the die is closed and locked again for the next cycle.
Two types of systems are used for injecting the molten metal into the die – the Hot
Chamber and the Cold Chamber process.
There are also two injection systems used in the cold chamber process, Horizontal
and Vertical injection.
High Pressure Die Casting
The Hot Chamber System is used with metals such as zinc, magnesium, and lead. The
injection system of a hot chamber machine is immersed in the molten metal bath of the
melting furnace. As the shot plunger moves, it forces metal through the nozzle and into
the die.
The Cold Chamber System is used for metals that melt at high temperatures, such
as aluminum, brass, and magnesium. Magnesium parts can be produced using both
systems, though usually small parts are produced in hot chamber machines and large
parts in cold chamber machines.
In the cold chamber process, the molten metal is poured, by hand or by automatic
means, into a port of the cold chamber sleeve. A hydraulically operated plunger
advances through this steel sleeve, sealing off the port, and forcing the metal into the
die at high speed and pressure. After solidification of the casting, the plunger is
retracted, the die opened, the casting ejected, and the system is then ready for the next
shot cycle. Higher pressure is used in this system than the hot chamber process. The
production rate of a hot chamber machine is higher than that of a cold chamber
machine because of the shorter time required during the pour operation.
High Pressure Die Casting Principle
High Pressure Die Casting Machine
High Pressure Die Casting - Advancements
In recent years several enhancements to the process have been developed over
conventional high-pressure die casting processes. Each of these processes utilizes the
fundamentals of high-pressure die casting, but with additional capabilities with unique
distinguished names.
• Vacuum Die Casting utilizes a vacuum system on the die cavity to remove gas
from the cavity prior to injection of the molten metal.
• Slow fill die casting is often called Squeeze Casting. This process is used with both
vertical and horizontal shot systems.
• In Semisolid Metal Processing (SSM), the metal injected into the die is only about
50% liquid. The process offers distinct advantages in that the feed metal fills the
cavity in a manner that is less turbulent than in conventional die casting.
Furthermore, the casting is partially solidified at the onset of the process, thus the
solidification “journey” is a much shorter one.
High Pressure Die Casting Process
• Step 1: Mold Preparation – Die cast mold is cleaned and the mold surface is lubricated
which forms a film between molten metal and the mold. This regulates the mold’s
temperature and easy removal of casting.
• Step 2: Injection – The entire mold is shut tight and sealed. Molten metal is poured
into the shot chamber, and then injected into the mold. The pressure at which the
metal is injected depends on their use cases. Usually, this pressure ranges from 1,500
to 25,000 PSI. This pressure is maintained until the molten metal has cooled and
completely solidified.
• Step 3: Part Removal – Upon ensuring that all the molten metal has solidified, the
movable end of the mold moves out. The ejector pins are typically featured on the
movable end of the mold and push out the solidified casting part from the cavity.
• Step 4: Trimming – All extra material from the product and the mold are removed.
A trim die, chisel, saw, etc., are used in the trimming process. Metal scraps are
reusable and recyclable in subsequent production cycles.
• Step 5: Finishing – The part is drilled / tapped as required.
High Pressure Die Casting Advantages
• The process is very economical for high volume of production.
• The process results in higher production rates than low pressure or gravity casting. It enables
the injection of molten metal at high speeds which results in higher production.
• High-pressure casting delivers good quality castings in terms of dimensional accuracy and
superior surface finish. This also gives excellent uniformity and optimum mechanical properties.
The high-precision products do not need extra trimming processes which can be time-
consuming and costly. Good surface finish eases the process of plating.
• In this die casting process thinner cross-sections are possible compared to any other casting
process. Obtaining wall thicknesses under 0.40 mm is possible according to requirements and
component size. Thin walls help in weight reduction of the products.
• This process also allows the addition of inserts (also referred to as “co-cast” parts) like screws
and liners, within the product during the casting process. Thus, helping in reducing the number
of components during assembly.
• High pressure die casting process allows the use of various die shapes. Flexibility in die shapes
means that complex parts can be produced, during the casting process, thereby helping in
complex assemblies.
• This process can produce a wide range of sizes from relatively large to small parts.
• The dies used in the process have a durable lifespan which means they can be reused in
multiple production cycles. This reduces per unit cost of the die casting product.
High Pressure Die Casting Disadvantages /
Limitations
• The equipment and tooling required for pressure die casting can be expensive,
requiring a significant upfront investment.
• The high initial cost and setup time make pressure die casting less economical for
small production runs or individual casting.
• Pressure die casting is not suitable for all materials or for very large or complex
components. Generally suitable for materials with low melting points and high
fluidity.
• Certain materials, like some high-strength alloys, may not be suitable for pressure
die casting due to their properties or the process's limitations.
• The process limits on how thick the components can be.
• The castings are generally not heat treatable.
• The high pressure and rapid cooling can lead to defects such as porosity, shrinkage,
and cold shuts.
• The high pressures and temperatures can shorten the lifespan of the dies, requiring
frequent maintenance and replacement.
High Pressure Die Casting Applications
• Automotive: This process produces various aluminum and magnesium automotive
structural components. It makes parts such as engine blocks, gearbox casings, oil
sumps, engine mounts and structural parts like cross-car beams.
• Medical: It is also a popular technique in producing lightweight surgical
tools. Moreover, medical devices and high production imaging equipment, infusion
pumps, etc., are also manufactured using the HPDC process.
• Aerospace : Due to the ability to manufacture complex and intricate designs and
automation, this process is highly popular in the aerospace industry. Alloys of
aluminum, zinc, and magnesium are used to manufacture engine parts which are light
weight and durable, for aerospace applications.
• Consumer Electronics: Housings, connectors, and heat sinks for mobile devices,
computers, and other electronics.
• Appliances: Kitchenware (like pressure cookers), hardware, and other appliance parts.
• Lighting: Luminaire housings; LED heatsinks etc.
• Electrical: Switchgear, panel boards, and circuit breakers.
• Furniture: Hardware like drawer pulls and knobs.
• Other: Parts for power tools, sporting goods, industrial machinery, and more.
High Pressure Die Casting Applications
Shell Mold Casting
Shell Mold Casting
Shell molding, also known as shell-mold casting, is an expendable mold casting process. Shell
molding was developed as a manufacturing process during the mid-20th century in Germany. It
was invented by German engineer Johannes Croning. The process is also known as Croning after
the inventor.
It is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured into an
expendable mold using resin covered sand to form the mold. As compared to sand casting, this
process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labour
requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that require high precision.
In this process, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin mixture
around a pattern. The mold is typically made of a mixture of dried silica sand and phenolic resin.
The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part but made in two pieces, is reused to
form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the
disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a
metal pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.
Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using
cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminium alloys, and copper alloys for gear
housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms, etc.
Shell Mold Casting Principle
Shell Mold Casting Machine
 Shell Mold Casting Process
• Step 1: Creating Pattern Parts – A pattern part is created by machining a metal pattern tool, usually from
iron or steel, representing one-half of the part. For casting reactive metals, the pattern is made of graphite.
• Step 2: Construct the Mold – Molds are made from a single pattern which are lubricated with calcium
stearate and then preheated to between 175 °C and 370 °C. The patterns are placed atop a “dump box” full
of sand and resin mixture. The box is flipped so the resin and sand contact the pattern and the heat causes
the resin to cure partially. Each pattern half and the surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven
and then the shell is ejected from the pattern.
• Step 3: Mold Assembly – After the shell has cooled it is assembled with the other half of the shell in a
flask. Mold halves are clamped tightly together and if any cores are required they are inserted prior to
closing the mold. The shell mold is placed inside a flask and the space between the two-part shell and the
flask’s walls is filled with metal shots.
• Step 4: Pour Molten Metal – Molten metal is poured in manually into the gating system of the pattern
using a ladle or using an automated machine.
• Step 5: Allow to Cool – The molten metal is allowed to cool in room temperature air where it solidifies into
the shape. Cooling the casting actively can lead to changes in the metal’s structure and properties. Total
cooling time depends on the volume and the type of metal involved.
• Step 6: Casting Removal - Once the metal has cooled, the casting is removed from the mold by separating
the mold halves at their seam or by simply breaking the mold itself.
• Step 7: Trimming and Cleaning – Any small sand particles and excess metal from the feed system are
cleaned or trimmed.
Materials suitable for Shell Mold Casting
• Carbon Steel – Carbon steel has less than 10.5% alloying elements. C20, C25, C30, and
C45 grades Carbon steel work well with shell molding. Shell molded carbon steel is very
machinable and resists wear. It is also ferromagnetic and highly recyclable.
• Stainless Steel – Stainless steel containing at least 10.5% chromium are more brittle and
exhibit less tensile strength than carbon steel, but they’re corrosion-resistant and
durable.
• Aluminium Alloys – ASTM A356, ASTM A413, and ASTM 360 Cast aluminum alloys are
used in place of steel if weight is a bigger concern than strength .
• Alloy Steel – Common alloy steel grades that are cast using shell molding include:
20Mn, 45Mn, ZG20Cr, 40Cr, 20Mn5, 16CrMo4, 42CrMo, 40CrV, 20CrNiMo, GCr15, and
9Mn2V.
• Copper & Alloys – Copper is lightweight and ductile that can be cast using shell molding.
All copper-based alloys are suitable for casting with the exception of brass.
• Low Alloy Steel – Low-alloy steels, defined as steel with less than 8% alloying content
are very similar to carbon steels but are more hardenable.
Shell Mold Casting Advantages
• Shell molding process can be used for complex geometry of parts.
• Shell mold casting can produce castings with high-quality surface finish, finer details,
tighter tolerances and excellent dimensional accuracy which reduce post processing,
compared to sand casting.
• Mold collapsibility minimizes chance of cracks in casting.
• The process can be faster than sand casting, especially for medium to high-volume
production. Automating the shell molding process can be a major advantage because it
minimizes labor costs.
• The sand and resin mixture can be reused.
• The resin binder is burned in the casting process, making the final product easy to
remove.
• The tooling is cheap and lead times can be short.
• Less foundry space is required.
• Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be cast using this process.
Shell Mold Casting Disadvantages / Limitations
• The gating system of Shell Mold Casting must be part of the pattern, which can be
expensive.
• Shell mold casting may not be suitable for all types of metals, especially those with
very high melting points.
• Shrinkage and porosity can be issues in shell mold castings.
• Post-processing may be required despite the increase in surface quality. Secondary
machining may be required to achieve the desired dimensions and surface finish.
• Gating system generates extra waste material.
• Size and weight of castings is limited.
• Phenolic resin (although it is used in small quantities) is expensive.
• High initial investment for equipment – metal pattern, curing oven etc. compared to
sand casting.
• The process may be difficult to justify very small quantities.
• Labor-intensive process when not automated.
Shell Mold Casting Applications
Shell molding has a huge list of applications across different industries. Parts are
usually less than 20 kg and therefore relatively small.

Examples of shell-molded products are:

[Link]
[Link] hooks
[Link] heads
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Shell Mold Casting Applications
Investment Casting
Investment Casting
Investment casting is also known as lost-wax casting or precision casting is an industrial
process based on lost-wax. It is one of the oldest known metal-forming techniques and
has been used in various forms for the last 5,000 years. In its earliest forms, beeswax
was used to form patterns nowadays more advanced waxes, refractory materials and
specialist alloys are typically used for making patterns. Investment casting can produce
components with accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity in a variety of metals
and high-performance alloys. Materials that can be cast include stainless steel alloys,
brass, aluminium, carbon steel and glass.
A fragile wax pattern is surrounded with a refractory material to make a mold, and a
molten substance is cast into it. Much of the wax used can be reclaimed and reused.
The process can be used for both small castings of a few grams to large castings
weighing several kilograms. However, it is most suitable for small parts at large
volumes. It can be more expensive than die casting or sand casting.
Investment casting can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or
impossible with other casting methods. It can also produce products with exceptional
surface qualities and low tolerances with minimal surface finishing or machining
required.
Investment Casting Principle
 Investment Casting Process
• Step 1: Creating Mold for Pattern – For single pieces, molds are not made and the wax pattern is
carved directly. For short runs, a mold for making the wax patterns is made from ceramic materials
cast over a precise master where the master is removed by opening the mold. Wax is poured into
this mold to create several wax patterns. In the industry, for large production, a permanent mold is
made by CNC milling steel or aluminium into which wax patterns can be rapidly cast.
• Step 2: Making Pattern Tree – Several wax patterns are joined with a wax channel and sprue and
support structure, if required, to make a pattern tree structure.
• Step 3: Making Mold Shell – The wax pattern tree with the channel, sprue and support structure is
coated by dipping in a ceramic slurry and drained. It is further sprayed with dry stucco powder to
stabilize the first layer. This is repeated several times until sufficient thickness is built which depends
on the mold size, structure and material to be cast. Sufficient time is provided for drying between
each run to stabilize each layer.
• Step 4: Removal of Wax – The completed and dried flask is baked in a furnace to remove the wax.
This also fuses the flask into one body.
• Step 5: Melt and Cast the Metal – The metal is melted in a furnace and poured into the flask through
the upper opening of the sprue. Filling continues till the molten metal rises through the upper vents.
• Step 6: Casting Removal - Once the metal has cooled, the casting is removed from the mold by
breaking away the refractive material.
• Step 7: Trimming and Cleaning – The cast pieces are removed by cutting them from the runners and
channels.
Materials suitable for Investment Casting
• Carbon Steel – Carbon steel has less than 10.5% alloying elements. C20, C25, C30, and C45 grades
Carbon steel work well with shell molding. Shell molded carbon steel is very machinable and resists
wear. It is also ferromagnetic and highly recyclable.
• Stainless Steel – Investment casting of stainless steel can sometimes result in a poor surface finish
because of influences from the casting process, and material properties. The chromium and nickel
content of stainless steel forms an oxide layer that can lead to surface irregularities and a rough finish
due to chemical interaction with the refractory materials. Certain coatings and good refractory
material selection can prevent much of this.
• Aluminium – Aluminum is well suited to high-value and moderate- to high-volume investment cast
components in which the fine detail is limited and the quality level of equipment is higher than the
normal.
• Brass – Brass is extensively used for both functional and decorative investment castings, due to its
versatility, cosmetics, and corrosion resistance. Brass benefits from low melt temperature and
viscosity and low shrinkage as it cools to solid. Brass properties in the casting process also offer some
challenges like zinc evaporation from the melt which can lead to changes in properties. Good mold
design, atmospheric oxygen control, and mold coatings can moderate this effect.
• Glass – The investment casting of glass is an unusual technique and is used to a limited degree in art
and decorative object manufacturing. It differs from the metal process in that the flask is generally
charged with powdered glass, with a large hopper (also filled with glass powder) over the sprue. The
whole is then placed in a kiln and the glass is melted and unified in the mold. The process is much like
investment casting metal except that the part requires considerably more care in demolding and
handling.
Investment Casting Advantages
• Complex geometries, thin walls, and fine features are relatively easy to achieve reliably,
providing remarkable design freedom. Unlike other casting processes, draft angle is not
required in parts.
• The dimensional accuracy with very tight tolerances are possible and repeatability of castings
are very good.
• Surface finishes are generally excellent and the process can be tuned to deliver exceptional
surface quality and precisely defined textures.
• Investment casting allows manufacturing of various sizes and shapes. Parts ranging from a tiny
to a large model can be cast by this process.
• It is possible to cast a wide range of metals and alloys of varying melting points, for instance,
steel, aluminum, bronze, cobalt, brass, and others.
• Material wastage is very low, as all feed/sprue parts can be re-used.
• Complex assemblies of multiple components can be consolidated into a single investment cast,
reducing assembly time and potential failure points.
• Tooling costs are low in comparison with die casting and lead times can be short.
• Less post-processing is required than with typical sand casting.
Investment Casting Disadvantages / Limitations
• Non-automated process costs are higher in comparison to sand casting.
• Volume component costs are always higher in comparison to die casting.
• Many steps in the process leaves wider scope for error and longer time overall.
• It is difficult to cast any parts that require cores. Very smalls holes would be
challenging or impossible to cast using the investment casting process.
• The size and weight of one-piece castings are much less than for sand casting.
• The per-component cost is higher than for sand casting at the one-off level. But the
difference reduces quickly with increased automation and volume of parts.
• There is a limitation materials that can be cast by this method.
Investment Casting Applications
• Automotive: Mass production of different types of internal combustion engine
components.
• Energy & Power: Complex, hollow turbine blades in exotic alloys, for gas and
steam turbines and turbocharger radial turbines.
• Medical: Mass production of dental implants, one-off custom builds of dental
crown/bridge metalwork, customised orthopaedic implants.
• Decorative & Jewelry: For one-off and limited production.
Investment Casting Applications