UNIT 3: Z-TRANSFORM

3.1. Definition of the z-transform

3.2. One-side and two-side transforms, ROC, Left-side, Right-sided and two-sided
sequences, Region of convergence, Relationship to causality
3.3. Properties of Z-transform (linearity, time shift, multiplication by exponential
sequence, differentiation, time reversal, convolution, multiplication)
3.4. Inverse z-transform-by long division, by partial fraction expansion
Definition of the z-transform:
 The Z-transform is a fundamental mathematical tool in Digital Signal Processing
(DSP) used to analyze discrete-time signals and systems. It converts a discrete-time signal (a
sequence of numbers) into a complex frequency-domain representation.
 Since Laplace transform is used for analysis of continuous time signal and system similarly
Z-transform plays an important role in analysis and representation of discrete time signal and
system.
 So basically the Z-transform provide a method for the analysis of discrete time signals and
systems in the frequency domain which more efficient than its time domain analysis. Z-
transform converts a discrete time domain signal into a complex frequency domain.
 Note: Laplace transform is used to convert continuous time domain signal to
frequency domain signal. Fourier transform for DTS (discrete time signal) and Z-
transform can convert discrete signal into frequency domain. Fourier transform can
convert only stable discrete time or continues signal into frequency domain which is
the limitation of Fourier transform but Z-transform is a generalized transform that
can convert stable as well as unstable signal of discrete form in frequency domain.

 A stable signal is one whose magnitude (or amplitude) remains within a finite bound
over time, meaning it doesn't diverge or grow indefinitely. In other words, the signal's
values stay within a specific range and don't tend towards infinity)

 An unstable signal, in the context of signal processing and systems, is a signal where
the system's output becomes unbounded for a bounded input. In simpler terms, it
means that if we put a signal with limited amplitude into a system, the output will
grow without limit, potentially reaching infinity.

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  The Z-transform of a discrete-time signal x[n] is defined as:

𝑋(𝑧) = Z{𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 [𝑛]. 𝑧
−𝑛

Where:
 X(z) = Z{x[n]} is Z-transform of x[n]
 x[n] is the discrete-time signal (defined for all integers n),
 z is a complex variable (𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝑤 where r is the magnitude and ω is the
frequency),
 The sum is taken over all n (from −∞ to +∞).
𝑗𝑤 −𝑛 = ∑∞ −𝑗𝑤𝑛
 𝑋(𝑧) = Z{𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛]. (𝑟𝑒 ) 𝑛=−∞[𝑥[𝑛]. 𝑟
−𝑛
]. 𝑒
 Bilateral or two sided Z-transform of discrete time signal or a sequence x[n]
can be defined by
𝑋(𝑧) = Z{𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛]. 𝑧
−𝑛
…………(i) where z is a complex variable
−1 ∞

𝑋(𝑧) = Z{𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]. 𝑧 −𝑛

+ ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]. 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0
(Anti- causal Z-transform) (Causal Z-transform)
 Unilateral or one sided Z-transform of discrete time signal or a sequence
x[n] can be defined by
𝑋(𝑧) = Z{𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑∞ 𝑛=0 𝑥[𝑛]. 𝑧
−𝑛
………(ii) where z is a complex variable

 If x[n] = 0 for n< 0 then the one sided and two sided Z – transform are equivalent
i.e. x[n] = 0 if n < 0

 Z-transform is an infinite power series which exists only for those values
of z for which the series converges.
ROC:
The Fourier transform does not converge for all sequences — the infinite sum may
not always be finite. Similarly, the z-transform does not converge for all sequences
or for all values of z. The set of values of z for which the z-transform converges is
called the region of convergence (ROC).
 ROC depends on the signal x[n].
 Convergence means the infinite sum does not diverge to infinity.
 The ROC is usually expressed as a range of magnitudes: r1< ∣z ∣< r2
 The ROC is always a ring (or disk) in the complex z-plane.

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 The z-transform converges if 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑∞
𝑛=0|𝑥[𝑛]. 𝑟
−𝑛 |
< ∞ this leads the
∞ −𝑛
condition ∑𝑛=0|𝑥[𝑛]| |𝑧| < ∞ for the existence of Z transform. The ROC
therefore consists of a ring in z plane.
 ROC of X(𝑍) is defined as the regional set of values of z for which X(𝑍)
attains a finite value.

Problem finding Z-transform

Q-1. Determine Z-transform of following finite duration signals.
(a) 𝑥(𝑛)={(1,5,6,7,0,8)}
↑

(b) 𝑥(𝑛)={2, 3,6 ,4,0,1 }

↑

(c) 𝑥(𝑛)={0,1,2,3}

(d) 𝑥(𝑛)=𝛿(𝑛)

(e) 𝑥(𝑛)=𝛿(𝑛−𝐾),𝐾 >0

(f) 𝑥(𝑛)=𝛿(𝑛+𝐾), 𝐾>0

(g) 𝑥(𝑛)={0,0,2,5,7}

(a) x (𝑛) ={(1,5,6,7,0,8)}

↑

𝑋(𝑧) = ∑∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛]. 𝑧
−𝑛

= ∑2n=−3 x[n]. z−n

=𝑥(−3)𝑍3+𝑥(−2)𝑍2+𝑥(−1)𝑍1+𝑥(0)𝑍0+𝑥(1)𝑍−1+𝑥(2)𝑍−2
=(1)𝑍3+ 5𝑍2+ 6𝑍+7 +0 +8𝑍−2
(c) (𝑛) = {0,1,2,3}
The signal x(n) is defined as:

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The Z-transform of a discrete-time signal) x(n) is given by:
𝑋(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛]. 𝑧
−𝑛

Since x(n) is non-zero only for n=1,2,3, the summation simplifies to:
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑥(1)𝑧 −1 + 𝑥(2)𝑧 −2 + 𝑥(3)𝑧 −3
Substituting the values of x(n) :
𝑋(𝑧) = 1. 𝑧 −1 + 2. 𝑧 −2 + 3. 𝑧 −3
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 −1 + 2 𝑧 −2 + 3 𝑧 −3

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 Left-side, Right-sided and two-sided sequences, Region of convergence, Relationship to
causality

The Region of Convergence (ROC) is crucial in determining the nature of the sequence (left-
sided, right-sided, or two-sided) and its causality.
 A pole is a value of z where the Z-transform X(z) becomes infinite (i.e., the denominator
of X(z) is zero).
𝑃(𝑧)
 Mathematically, if X(z) = , the roots of Q(z)=0 are the poles.
𝑄(𝑧)
 Definition of zeros:
 The value(s) for z where P(z) =0.
 The complex frequencies that make the overall gain of the filter transfer function zero.
Definition of poles:
 The values(s) for z where Q(z) =0
 The complex frequencies that make the overall gain of the filter transfer function infinite.
𝑧+1
The transfer function with poles and zeros shown below 𝐻(𝑧) = 1 3
(𝑧− ) (𝑧+ )
2 4
1 3
The zero is -1 and the poles are { ,− }
2 4

 The ROC cannot contain any poles. By definition a pole is a where X(z) is infinite.
Since X(z) must be finite for all z for convergence, there cannot be a pole in the ROC.
The Z-Plane
 Once the poles and zeros have been found for a given Z-Transform, they can be plotted onto
the Z-Plane.

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 The Z-plane is a complex plane with an imaginary and real axis referring to the complex-
valued variable z.
 The position on the complex plane is given by rejθ and the angle from the positive, real axis
around the plane is denoted by θ.
 When mapping poles and zeros onto the plane, poles are denoted by an "x" and zeros by an
"o".
 The below figure shows the Z-Plane, and examples of plotting zeros and poles onto the plane
can be found in the following section.

𝑧+1
Example: Simple pole zero plot for transfer function 𝐻(𝑧) = 1 3
(𝑧−2 ) (𝑧+4 )

 The zero is {-1 }

1 3
 The poles are { , − }
2 4
 Example: Complex pole zero plot for transfer
(𝑧−𝑗)(𝑧+𝑗)
function 𝐻(𝑧) = 1 1 1 1
(𝑧−(2 − 2 𝑗)) (𝑧− 2+2 𝑗)
 The zeros are: { j, −j}
1 1 1 1
 The poles are: {−1, + j, − j}
2 2 2 2
 If x[n] is finite duration sequence, then the ROC is the
entire z-plane, except possibly z= 0 or |z|=∞. A finite

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duration sequence is sequence that is nonzero in a finite interval𝑛1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛2 .
 As long as each value of x[n] is finite then the sequence will be absolutely summable.
When 𝑛2 > 0 there will be a z-1 term and thus the ROC will not include z=0. When 𝑛1 <
0 then the sum will be infinite and thus ROC will not include |z|= ∞. On the other hand
when 𝑛2 ≤ 0 then the ROC will include z=0 and when 𝑛1 ≥ 0 the ROC will include |z|
=∞. With these constraints, the only signal then whose ROC is entire Z-plane is 𝑥[𝑛] =
𝑐𝛿[𝑛]

Figure: An example of finite duration sequence

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If x[n] is a right-sided sequence, then the ROC extends outward from the
outermost pole in X(z). A right-sided sequence is a sequence
where x[n]=0 for n<n1<∞. Looking at the positive-time portion from the above

derivation, it follows that

Thus in order for this sum to converge, |z| > r2, and therefore the ROC of a right-
sided sequence

is of the form |z | > r2

Fig: Right-sided sequence Fig: Roc of right sided sequence

 If x[n] is a left-sided sequence, then the ROC extends inward from the innermost
pole in X(z). A left-sided sequence is a sequence where x[n]=0 for n>n2 > −∞
Looking at the negative-time portion from the above derivation, it follows that

 Thus in order for this sum to converge, |z| < r1|, and therefore the ROC of a left-sided
sequence is of the form |z|<r1.

Fig: Left-sided sequence Fig: Roc of left sided sequence

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 If x[n] is a two-sided sequence, the ROC will be a ring in the z-plane that is bounded on
the interior and exterior by a pole. A two-sided sequence is an sequence with infinite
duration in the positive and negative directions. From the derivation of the above two
properties, it follows that if − r2 <|z| < r2 converges, then both the positive-time and negative-
time portions converge and thus X(z) converges as well. Therefore the ROC of a two-sided
sequence is of the form −r2 < |z| < r2.

Fig: Two-sided sequence Fig: Roc of two sided sequence

Example

Fig:

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 Fig:

Fig:
 Example:

−1 𝑛
The z-transform and ROC of ( ) 𝑢[𝑛] was shown in the example above. The z-
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1 𝑛 𝑧 1
transform of (− ( ) ) 𝑢[(−𝑛) − 1] is 1 with an ROC at |z| >
2 𝑧− 2
2

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.

ROC relationship to causality: A discrete time LTI system is causal if and only if
 The ROC is the circle is the exterior of a circle outside the outermost pole.

Z- Plane
|z|>2
|z|>3
1 2 3 ROC: | z | > 3

 If H(z) is expressed as ratio of polynomial in 'z'. The order of numerator cannot be greater
than the order of the denominator.

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 z2 +z+1 z4 +1
H(z) = is causal and H(z) = is non causal
z3 +z+1 z3 +z+1
An LTI system is stable if
 It’s system function H(z) includes the unit circle.
 A causal LTI system is stable if and only if all the poles of H(z) lies inside the unit circle
Z- Transform Formulas

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Properties of Z-transform (linearity, time shift, multiplication by exponential
sequence, differentiation, time reversal, convolution, multiplication)

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Time Reversal property:

Proof: By definition of z-transform 𝑋(𝑧) = Z{𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑∞

𝑛=0 𝑥[𝑛]. 𝑧
−𝑛

Z{𝑥[−𝑛]} = ∑ 𝑥[−𝑛]. 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=0

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Question: (i) (𝒏)= 𝒂𝒏 and (ii) 𝒙(𝒏)= 𝒂−𝒏
i) (𝒏)= 𝒂𝒏
soln
Given (𝒏)= 𝒂𝒏

(ii)𝒙(𝒏)= 𝒂−𝒏

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Question : (i) 𝒙(𝒏)= 𝒂𝒏 and (ii) 𝒙(𝒏)= 𝒂−𝒏

i) x(𝒏)= 𝒂𝒏
soln
Given (𝒏)= 𝒂𝒏

(ii)𝒙(𝒏)= 𝒂−𝒏

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Z-transform multiplication by exponential sequence: The Z-transform of the
exponentially weighted sequence aⁿ x[n] is given by Z{aⁿ x[n]} = X(z / a)
If X(z) is the Z-transform of x[n], that is,
X(z) = ∑ x[n] z-n (sum over all n)
Then the Z-transform of aⁿ x[n] is:
Z{aⁿ x[n]} = ∑ aⁿ x[n] z-n
z −n
= ∑∞
𝑛=−∞ ∑ x[n] ( a ) = X(z / a)
So, Z{aⁿ x[n]} = X(z / a)

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Z-transform multiplication property:
The Z-transform multiplication property refers to how multiplication operations in the time domain or
Z-domain affect the Z-transform. There are two key cases:

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Inverse z-transform-by long division, by partial fraction expansion
The inverse Z-transform is the process of converting a function X(z) in the Z-domain back to its
corresponding discrete-time sequence x[n]. It is essential in digital signal processing (DSP) for
analyzing and designing discrete-time systems.

The notation for the inverse z transform is Z-1. The inverse z transform of X(z) produces the
corresponding time sequence x(n).

Inverse z-transform-by long division:

The long division method is used to find the inverse Z-transform by expanding X(z) into a
power series in z−1 (for causal signals) or z (for anti-causal signals). The coefficients of the series
correspond to the discrete-time sequence x[n].It can only be used if the region of
convergence(ROC) of the given Z-transform X(z) is either of the form of |Z| >? Or of the form of
|Z| < ?

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Using this series, we can identify the coefficients of Z-n as x(n) of an anti causal sequence.

Inverse z transform can be obtained by

(i) Power series expansion
(ii) Partial fraction expansion
In inverse x transform x(n) is obtained from X(z). From X(z), x(n) can be obtained
as

From above expansion, the sequence x(n) can be obtained as

x(n) = {..., x(-3), x(-2), x(-1), x(0), x(1), x(2), x(3)...}
Power series expansion can be obtained directly (or) by long division method.

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Problem 1:
1
Determine inverse z transform of X(z) = using long division method
1−𝑧 −1
Solution:

The values of 𝑥(𝑛) can be obtained by comparing the values of X(z) with x(0) z 0 + x(1)z-1 +
x(2)z-2 +……….

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Problem 2: Determine inverse z transform of X(z) =
Solution:

Taking inverse z transform, x(n) = {1, a, a2, a3,...} = an u(n)

Hint: When ROC is |z|>|a| (or) |z| > 1, we should expand, X(z) in negative powers of z

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Ans:

Inverse z - transform using partial fraction expansion

Z-transform by partial fraction expansion

In order to determine the inverse Z-transform of X(z) using partial fraction expansion method,
the denominator of X(z) must be in factored form. In this method, we obtained the partial
𝑋(𝑧 )
fraction expansion of 𝑧 instead of X(z). This is because the Z-transform of time-domain
sequences have Z in their numerators.
𝑋(𝑧 )
The partial fraction expansion method is applied only if is a proper rational function, i.e.,
𝑧
the order of its denominator is greater than the order of its numerator.
𝑋(𝑧 )
If 𝑧 is not a proper function, then it should be written in the form of a polynomial and a
proper function before applying the partial fraction method.
The disadvantage of the partial fraction method is that, the denominator of X(z) must be in
𝑋(𝑧 )
factored form. Once the 𝑧 is obtained as a proper function, then using the standard Z-
transform pairs and the properties of Z-transform, the inverse Z-transform of each partial fraction
can be obtained.

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Following steps are performed for partial fraction expansion case I
Case I:

I Step: Arrange the given

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II Step:
Then find A1, A2, A3 ... AN values using partial fraction expansion.
Case II

III Step: Equation (1) can be written as

IV Step: Depending upon ROC, following standard z transform pairs must be

used.

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Problem 1:
𝟏
Determine the inverse z transform of X(z) = ROC is z > 0.6.
𝟏−𝟎.𝟖𝐳 −𝟏 +𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝐳 −𝟐
Solution:

By partial fraction technique we get

To find A multiply both sides by (𝐳−. 𝟎. 𝟔)

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To find B multiply both sides by (𝐳−. 𝟎. 𝟐)

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Taking inverse z transform using standard relation, we get

Problem 2:
Determine the inverse z transform of

Solution:
Convert X(z) to positive powers of z

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Taking inverse z transform using standard relations

Problem 3:
Find the inverse z transform of X(z) =
Solution:

Divide the above equation by z in order to get X(z)/z

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Taking inverse z transform using standard relations

Problem 4:
Find the inverse z transform of

Solution:

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Taking the inverse z transform using standard relation.

Problem 5:
Find the inverse z transform of

Solution:

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Taking the inverse z transform using standard relation and time shifting property.

Problem 6:
Find the inverse z transform of X(z) =
Solution:

Divide above equation by z in orders to get X(z)/z

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By taking inverse z transform using standard relations

Problem 7:
Determine inverse z transform of the following function

Solution:

Roots of quadratic equation

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By partial fraction expansion,

After substituting the values of A and A*, X(z)/z becomes

Taking inverse z transform using standard relations,

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Ans i)

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Ans ii)

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Find the inverse z transform of:

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Now perform partial fraction on the fraction

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Ans:

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