SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

UNIT I CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS

Functional elements of an instrument with its block diagram.

PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with
the primary sensing element of a measurement system.
VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It converts the output of the primary sensing element
into suitable form to preserve the information content of the original signal.
TRANSDUCER ELEMENT: Normally ,a transducer sense the desired input in one physical
form and converts it to an output in another physical form. For example, the input variable to the
transducer could be pressure, acceleration or temperature and the output of the transducer may be
displacement, voltage or resistance change depending on the type of transducer element.
Sometimes the dimensional units of the input and output signals may be same. In such cases the
functional element is termed a transformer.
Depending on the transducer signal the signal conditioning may be any one of the
following,
[Link] amplifying elements such as levers , gears or a combination of the two, designed
to have a multiplying effect on the input transducer signal.
[Link]/Pneumatic amplifying elements employing various types of valves or
constrictions ,such as venturimeter/orificemeter,to get significant variation in pressure with small
variation in the input parameters.
[Link] amplifying elements in which lenses, mirrors and combinations of lenses and mirrors
or lamp and scale arrangement are employed to convert the small input displacement into an
output of sizeable magnitude for a convenient display of the same.
[Link] amplifying elements employing transistor circuits, integrated circuits, etc, for
boosting the amplitude of the transducer signal. In such amplifiers we have either of the following

voltage amplification= output voltage = Vo

input voltage Vi
Current amplification= Output current = Io
Input current Ii
or

Gain= Output power = VoIo

Input power ViI i
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Signal filtration: The term signal filtration means the removal of unwanted noise signals
that tend to obscure the transducer signal. The signal filtration element could be any of the
following depending on the type of situation, nature of signal ,etc..
[Link] Filters that consist of mechanical elements to protect the transducer
element from various interfering extraneous signals. For ex: the reference junction of a
thermocouple is kept in a thermos flask containing ice. This protects the system from the ambient
temperature changes.
[Link] filters consisting of a small orifice or venturi to filter out fluctuations in a
pressure signal.
[Link] filters are employed to get rid of stray pick-ups due to electrical and magnetic
fields. They may be simple R-C circuits or any other suitable electrical filters compatible with the
transduced signal.
DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT:
The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control or analysis purpose
This system gathers the output of the signal conditioning element and presents the same to
be read or seen by the experimenter. This element should:
[Link] as fast a response as possible
[Link] as little drag on the system as possible, and
[Link] very small inertia, friction, stiction, etc..(hence using light rays and electron beam
is advantageous).
This element may be either of the visual display type, graphic recording type or a magnetic
tape. In the visual display type element, devices such as pointer and scale/panel meter, multi-
channel CRO, storage CRO, etc.., may be employed. The graphic recording type of element gives
a permanent record of the input data. The device in this element may be pen recorders using
heated stylus, ink recorders on paper charts, optical recording systems such as mirror
galvanometer recorders or ultraviolet recorders on special photosensitive paper. Further , a
magnetic tape may be used to acquire input data which could be reproduced at a later date for
analysis.
In case the output of the signal conditioning element is in digital form, then the same may
be displayed visually on a digital display device. Alternatively, it may be suitably recorded either
on punched cards, perforated paper tape, magnetic type, typewritten page or a combination of
these systems for further processing

Different types of errors in the measurement

All physical measurements involve some degree of uncertainty. Whenever the
measurements are taken, a degree of error must always be assumed. In reality, no measurement
can ever be made with pin point accuracy. The three major types of errors are gross errors,
systematic errors and random errors.
GROSS ERROR:
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading or using instruments and in
recording and calculating measured values. Since this is mainly due to human mistake ,complete
elimination of gross error is probably impossible, one should try to anticipate and correct them.
Some gross errors are easily detected while others may be very difficult to detect.
For ex: observer may, due to oversight, read the temperature as 31.5 oC while the actual reading
may be [Link] they can be avoided by adopting two means. They are
[Link] care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
[Link],three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity under measurement.
These readings should be taken preferably by different experimenters and the readings should be
taken at a different reading point to avoid re-reading with the same error. Never place complete
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dependence on one reading but take at least three separate readings , preferably under conditions
in which instruments are switched OFF-ON.
SYSTEMATIC ERROR:
These types of errors are divided into three categories such as instrumental, environmental
and observational errors
[Link] ERRORS:
These errors arise due to inherent short comings in the instrument, misuse of the
instruments and loading effects.
[Link] short comings of instruments:
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure. They may
be due to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring devices.
For ex: if the spring of a permanent magnet instrument has become weak, the instrument will
always read high.
Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or even gear backlash. These errors
may be eliminated or reduced by using the following methods:
[Link] factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.
[Link] instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
[Link] procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or
calibration against standards may be used for the purpose.
[Link] of instruments:
Some of the errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the operator than that of
the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give erroneous results.
For ex: Failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial adjustments, using leads of too high a
resistance etc..,
[Link] effects:
In any measurement, the loading effect of the instrument should be considered and
corrections for these effects should be made or more suitable instruments should be used.
For ex: A well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading when connected across
a high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter when connected in a low resistance circuit, may give
a more dependable reading and the voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering the actual
circuit conditions by the measurement process. The errors caused by loading effects of the meters
can be avoided by using them intelligently.
[Link] ERRORS:
These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device including conditions in
the area surrounding the instrument. These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity,
dust, vibrations or of external magnetic or electrostatic fields. The corrective measures employed
to eliminate or to reduce these undesirable effects are:
[Link] should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as possible.
For ex: temperature can be kept constant by keeping the equipment in a temperature controlled
enclosure.
[Link] equipment which is immune to these effects. For ex; variations in resistance with
temperature can be minimized by using resistance materials which have a very low resistance
temperature co-efficient.
[Link] techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances, For ex: the
effect of humidity, dust etc can be entirely eliminated by hermetically sealing the instrument.
[Link] case it is suspected that external magnetic or electrostatic fields can affect the readings
of the instruments, magnetic or electrostatic shields may be provided.
Applying computed corrections; Efforts are normally made to avoid the use of application
of computed corrections, but where these corrections are needed they are incorporated for the
computations of the results.
[Link] ERRORS:
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There are many sources of observational errors. As an ex :the pointer of a voltmeter rests
slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus, an error on account of parallax will be incurred
unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimise parallax errors,
highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales. There are human factors involved in
measurement. The sensing capabilities of individual observers affect the accuracy of
measurement. No two persons observe the same situation exactly the same way, where small
details are concerned.
RANDOM ERROR:
These errors are due to unknown causes and are observed when the magnitude and polarity
of a measurement fluctuate in an unpredictable manner. Some of the most common random errors
are:
[Link] error:
This occurs when readings are between scale graduations and the reading is rounded up or
down to the nearest graduation.
[Link] error:
This occurs when an analog meter reading swings or fluctuate about the correct reading. In
addition, the meter reading quickly changes in the immediate vicinity of the corrected value, but
changes slowly at the extremes of the swing.
LIMITING ERROR:
Instruments having analog meters are usually guarenteed to the accurate within certain
percentage limits, called limiting errors or guarentee errors. For ex an analog voltmeter may have
a tolerance of 3% of full scale reading.
Limiting error=accuracy * full scale value
On the other hand the percentage error of the actual meter reading is computed from

percentage error =

Relative (fractional)limiting error:

The relative (fractional)limiting error is defined ad the ratio of the limiting error to the
nominal magnitude of a quantity.

Relative limiting error Er=

i.e., Relative limiting error =

Performance characteristics of the instruments.

It consists of two characteristics as follows:
[Link] CHARACTERISTICS:
The static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments
which are used to measure an unvarying process condition, performance characteristics mostly
obtained by calibration.
a)Accuracy: It is the measure of closeness with an instrument measures the true value of a
quantity.
b)Precision: It is the measure of the consistency or repeatability of a series of measurements.
Although accuracy implies precision, precision does not necessarily imply accuracy. It is given by
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Precision = 1-

Where xi is the value of the ith measurement

is the average value of n measurements.

c)Sensitivity: It is a measure of the change in reading of an instrument for a given change in the
measured quantity
d)Resolution: It is the smallest change in the measured quantity that will produce a deductable
change in the instrument reading.
e)Error: It is the deviation from the true value of the measured quantity. Absolute error is defined
as the difference between the expected value of a quantity and the measured value.
Absolute error = Xe - Xm
where Xe is the expected value, Xm is the measured value

% error =

f)Range: The range of an instrument describes the limits of magnitude over which a quantity may
be measured .It is normally specified by stating its lower and upper limits.
g)Span: The span of an instrument is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower limits
of the instrument range.
h)Drift: It is the variation of the measured value with time. Perfect reproducibility means that the
instrument has no drift. There are 3 types of drifts: Zero, span and zonal drift.
i)Dead zone : It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of
the instrument. The factors which produce dead zone are hysteresis and backlash in the
instrument.
j)Threshold: It is clear that if the input into the instrument is increased very gradually from 0,
there will be some minimum value below which no output change can be detected.
k)Significant figure: In stating the numerical results of a measurement, only those figures that are
meaningful should be recorded.
i)Retaining digits: While recording values of known precision, the convention
is to retain the last digit that is not uncertain by more than ten units.
ii)Rounding off:
Significant figures: After the number of figures to be retained is determined,
the last retained figure is increased by one unit, if the first dropped figure is greater than 5, or is a
5 followed by any other number other than zero.
Significant Zeros: To avoid giving indication of a higher degree of precision that is
warranted, zeros that are not significant, but which serve only to indicate the position of the point,
should not be used in writing a value.
2. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:
Speed Of Response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in measured quantity. It is one of the dynamic characteristics of a measurement system
Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error.
Dynamic Error :It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time and
the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error. It is one the dynamic characteristics
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Measuring Lag :It is the retardation delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in
the measured quantity. It is of 2 types:

(a)Response with dead time (b)Dead time and dead zone

Retardation type: The response begins immediately after a change in measured quantity has
occurred.
Time delay: The response of the measurement system begins after a dead zone after the
application of the input.
Calibration of the measurement system.
All measuring instruments are to prove themselves their ability to measure reliably and accurately.
For this the results of measurements are to be compared with higher standards which are traceable
to National or International standards. The procedure involved is termed as calibration.
It is a set of operations that establish the relationship between the values that are indicated
by the measuring instrument and corresponding known values of measurand.
Thus calibration of a measuring instrument means introducing an accurately known
sample of the variable that is to be measured and then observing the system's response. Then the
measuring instrument is checked and adjusted until its scale reads the introduced accurately
known samples of the variable.
It should be further noted that an instrument is calibrated at one place and is put to use at
some other place. Care should be taken to see that the instrument is used at a place where the
environment has the same conditions as that of the place where the instrument was calibrated to
ensure that the instrument gives correct readings.
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE:
The two types of the calibration procedures are as follows:
(a)Primary calibration:
If the instrument is calibrated against primary standards then it is primary calibration.
After the primary calibration, the instrument can be used as a secondary calibration instrument.

Meter

Primary standard
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(b)Secondary calibration:
The secondary calibration instrument is used as secondary for further calibration of other
devices of lesser accuracy. This type of instruments are used in general laboratory practice as well
as in the industry because they are practical calibration sources.

Test Meter

Secondary standard
Secondary standard can be further be classified into two types.
(i)Direct calibration:
Direct calibration with a known input source is in general of the same order of
accuracy as primary calibration. So, the instruments which are calibrated directly are also used as
secondary calibration instruments.
For eg:

Voltage Voltmeter
standard

Current standard Ammeter

Fig. Calibration of voltmeter and ammeter

(ii)Indirect calibration
This procedure is based on the equivalence of two different devices adopting same similarity
concept.
Test instrument
Meter 1
Source
Meter 1

Standard instrument

standards of measurement
A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known accurate
measure of physical quantity is termed as standard. These standards are used to determine the
values of other physical quantities by the comparison method.
Different standards have been developed for other units of measurements and all these
standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and Measures at Serves, Paris.
Based on the functions and applications, substrate are classified into four categories as
(i) International standards
(ii) Primary standards
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(iii) Secondary standards

(iv) Working standards
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
These are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of
fundamental units of physics. They represent certain units of measurement to the closest possible
accuracy attainable by the science and technology of measurement. These are not available to
ordinary users for measurements and calibrations.
International ohms:
It is defined as the resistance offered by a column of mercury having a mass of 14.4521
gms, uniform cross sectional area and length of 106.300 cm to the flow of constant current at the
melting point of ice.
International Amperes:
It is an unvarying current, which when passed through a solution of silver nitrate in water
deposits silver at a rate of 0.00111800 gm/s.
PRIMARY STANDARDS :
The principle function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of
secondary standards. These are maintained at the National Standards Laboratories in different
countries. They are not available for use outside the National laboratory. These are the absolute
standards of high accuracy that can be used as ultimate reference standards.
SECONDARY STANDARDS:
Theses are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration laboratories in
industries.
These secondary standards are maintained by the particular industry to which they belong.
Each industry has its own standards. Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standards to
the National Standards Laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary standard.
After comparison and calibration the NSL returns the secondary standards to the particular
industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a primary standard.
WORKING STANDARDS:
Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory. These standards are used
to check and calibrate laboratory instruments for accuracy and performance.
For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors, resistors etc., use a
standard called a working standard resistor for checking of resistance value manufactured.

UNIT 2- MEASUREMENT OF PARAMETERS IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Torque equation of electrodynamic type instrument

It is also called as electrodynamometer type instrument and it is a type of transfer
instrument. A transfer instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c. source and then used
without any modification to measure a.c. Electrodynamometer type instruments are used as a.c.
voltmeters and ammeters both in the range of power frequencies and lower part of the audio
frequency.
Operation principle of electrodynamic type instrument:
It is same as the principle of PMMC instrument in a.c. If an a.c. supply is given to PMMC
type instrument, an alternating torque will be developed which will make the pointer swing back
and forth around the zero point without showing any reading at low frequency. However in order
that the instrument should be able to read a.c. quantities, the magnetic field in the air gap must
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change with the change in current thus producing an unidirectional torque. This is the operating
principle of electrodynamometer type instrument.
Diagram:

Torque equation of electrodynamometer type instruments:

Let i1 = instantaneous value of current in the fixed coil in A
i2 = instantaneous value of current in the moving coil in A
L1 = self inductance of fixed coil in H
L2 = self inductance of moving coil is H
M = mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils is H
The figure shows the electrical equivalent of the electrodynamometer instrument.

Electrical equivalent of a Electrodynamometer Instrument

Flux linkages of coil 1, Ψ1 = L1i1 + Mi2 ---------------- (1)

Flux linkages of coil 2, Ψ2 = L2i2 + Mi1 ------------------- (2)

We know that,

e1 = and e1 = ----------------------- (4)

Substituting equ (4) in equ (3) we get,

Input electrical energy = i1 dt + dt

= i1d Ψ1 + i2d Ψ2 ------------------------ (5)

Substituting equ (1) & (2) in (3) we get
Input electrical energy = i1d(L1i1 + Mi2) + i2(L2i2 + Mi1)
As L1, L2,M, i1 & i2 are variables,
Input electrical energy = i1 L1di1 + i12d L1 + i1 i2 dM + i1M di2 + i2 L2di2+ i22d L2
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+ i2M di1+ i1 i2 dM

Energy stored in the magnetic field = i12 L1+ i22 L2+ i1i2M---------------(6)

Change in stored energy = d ( i12 L1+ i22 L2+ i1i2M )

= i12d L1+ L1i1di1 + i22d L2+ L2i2di2+ i1M di2+ i2M di1+ i1 i2 dM-----------(7)

From the principle of conservation of energy,

Total input electrical energy = change in store energy + mechanical energy
Mechanical energy = Total input electrical energy - Change in stored energy -------------(8)
Mechanical energy = =i1 L1di1 + i12d L1 + i1 i2 dM + i1M di2 + i2 L2di2+ i22d L2

+ i2M di1+ i1 i2 dM - i12d L1+ L1i1di1 - i22d L2

+ L2i2di2 - i1M di2- i2M di1- i1 i2 dM

Mechanical energy = i12d L1+ i22d L2+ i1 i2 dM -------------------------------(9)

Since the self inductances L1,& L2 are constants dL1 = 0 and dL2 = 0
Hence , Mechanical energy = i1 i2 dM -------------------------------------(10)
Suppose Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and d is the change in deflection, then
Mechanical energy = Work done = Ti d -----------------------------------(11)
Equating equ (10 & 11) we get
Ti d = i1 i2 dM

Ti = i1 i2 ----------------------------------(12)

Equations (12) gives the expression for the instantaneous deflecting torque of an electrodynamic
type instrument.
Operating with D.C :
In case of D.C measurement we can consider the rms value of current as the constant value.

Ks = I1 I2

= ------------------------------(13)

Operation with A.C :

= where is the final steady deflection in radian.

Construction and principle of operation of single phase induction type energy meter.
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Induction type of energy meters are universally used for measurement of energy in domestic
and industrial a.c circuits because of the following advantages.
(i)Have the lower friction and higher torque/weight ratio.
(ii)Inexpensive
(iii)Accurate over a wide range of loads and temperature conditions.
Basic principle:
It is an integrating type instrument which works on the principle of induction.(i.e) In this
type of instrument, alternating fluxes are produced because of 1 A.C supply. This alternating
fluxes induces the generation of eddy current in the moving systems which interacts with each
other to produce a driving torque which causes the aluminium disc to rotate and thus records the
energy.
Construction details:
Four main parts of the induction type energy meter are,
(i)Driving system:
It consists of two electromagnets whose core is made up of silicon steel laminations. The
coil of one of the electromagnets which is excited by the load current is called coil and the
corresponding electromagnet is called series magnet. The coil of the second electromagnet which
is connected across the supply carries a current proportional to the supply voltage and is called
pressure coil and the corresponding electromagnet is called shunt magnet. Adjustable copper
shading bands are provided on the central limb of shunt magnet whose function is to bring the flux
produced by the shunt magnet exactly in quadrature with the applied voltage

Induction Type Single Phase Energy Meter

(ii)Moving system:
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The moving system consists of an aluminium disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. The disc is
positioned in the air gap between the series and shunt magnets. The moving system is connected
to a hardened steel pivot which is screwed to the foot of the shaft. The pivot is supported by a
jewel bearing. In this type of energy meter as there is no controlling torque, continuous rotation
of the disc is produced due to the driving torque only.
(iii)Braking system:
It consists of a permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminium disc. The
aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus provides a braking torque can be
adjusted.
(iv)Registering/counting mechanism:
The function of this is to record continuously a number which is proportional to the
revolutions made by the moving system. By a suitable system, a train of reduction gears on the
pinion of the shaft which drives a series of 5 or 6 pointers. The pointer rotates on round dials
which are marked with ten equal divisions.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
When the pressure coil wound on the shunt magnet is connected across the supply voltage, it
carries a current Ip proportional to the supply voltage, thus producing an alternating flux p is
alternating in nature, it induces an emf Eep in the disc which inturn produces eddy current Iep. When
the current coil wound on the series magnet carries the load current I, it produces an alternating
flux c. This flux c induces an emf Eec in the disc which inturn produces eddy current I ec. Now the
eddy current Iep interacts with c and produces a torque T1. Eddy current Iec interacts with p and
produces the another torque T2.
Let V = supply voltage
Ip = Current through the pressure coil which is proportional to supply voltage.
I = Load current
 = Phase angle of load
p = Flux produced by the current through pressure coil
c = Flux produced by the current through current coil
Eep = Eddy emf induced by flux p
Eec = Eddy emf induced by flux c
Iep = Eddy current due to flux p
Iec = Eddy current due to flux c
Net driving torque, Td  T2 - T1
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Phasor diagram of Induction Type Energy Meter

As the pressure coil is highly inductive in nature, I p lags V by 90o, neglecting the resistance in
pressure coil. Since  is the phase angle of load, load current I lags the supply voltage by the angle
 .However p will be in phase with Ip as p is the flux produced due to current Ip .Similarly c will
be in phase with I, as c is the flux produced due to load current I.
Let T1 = c Iep cos(angle between c and Iep )
T1 = c Iep cos(90o + 90o - )
T1 = c Iep cos(180o -  ) -----------------------------------------(1)
T2 = p Iec cos(angle between p and Iec )
T2 = p Iec cos ------------------------------------------(2)
Net driving torque Td  T2 - T1
Hence Td  p Iec cos - = c Iep cos(180o -  ) --------------------------------------(3)
Since cos(180o -  ) = - cos
Td  p Iec cos + c Iep cos -------------------------------------------(4)
We know that, p  Ip  V
Iep  Eep  V, Hence in equ (4)
p can be replaced by V
Iec can be replaced by I
c can be replaced by I
and Iep can be replaced by V
Now equ (4) becomes,
Td = K1 VI cos + K2 VI cos
Td = (K1 + K2)VI cos -------------------------------------------(5)
Td  VIcos i.e., power consumed by the load----------------------------------(6)
Now, braking torque is proportional to the speed of revolution of the disc. Hence Tb  N
where, Tb = braking torque
For constant speed of operation Tb = Td
N  VIcos --------------------------------------(7)
Multiplying the equ (7) by t on both sides we get
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Nt  VItcos is the energy consumed by the load.----------------------------------(8)

From the above equ it is clear that the number of revolutions in time t is directly proportional to
the energy consumed by the load.
Construction and working PMMC instrument. Derive the equation for deflection if the
instrument is spring controlled.
The PMMC instruments are used to give accurate reading in d.c measurements.
Basic principle:
PMMC instruments mainly works on motoring principle. When a current carrying conductor
is placed is a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet, the coil experiences a force and
hence moves. As the coil is moving and the magnet is permanent, this instrument is called PMMC
instrument. This basic principle is called D'Arsonval principle which is the main principle of
operation of Galvanometer. The amount of force experienced by the coil is proportional to the
current passing through the coil.
Construction details:
It consists of a moving coil which is either rectangular or circular in shape, which has
number of turns of fine wire. The coil is suspended so that it is free to turn about its
vertical axis. The coil is placed in uniform horizontal and radial magnetic field of a
permanent magnet in the shape of a horse-shoe. The iron core is spherical if the coil is
circular and is cylindrical if the coil is rectangular. Due to iron core, the deflecting torque
increases, which inturn increases the sensitivity of the instrument.
Controlling torque is provided by the method of spring control with the help of two
phosphor bronze hair springs.
Damping torque is provided by the method of eddy current damping which is obtained by
the movement of the aluminium former in the magnetic field produced by the permanent
magnet.
The pointer is connected to the spindle and it moves over a uniformly graduated scale, it is
light weighted and deflects rapidly.
The mirror is placed below the pointer to get an accurate reading without parallax error. In
PMMC the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current passing through
the coil, which is the quantity measured in case of ammeter and it is proportional to the
voltage to be measured in case of voltmeter. Hence a linear scale is used in PMMC
instrument.
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(a)PMMC Instruments

TORQUE EQUATION:
The deflecting torque of a moving coil instrument can be derived from the basic equation of
the electromagnetic torque.
Deflecting torque, Td = NBAI
where Td = deflecting torque in N-m
N= Number of turns of the coil
A=Effective coil area in m2
I= Current passing through the moving coil in ampere
B= Flux density in air gap in Wb/m2
Let G = NBA = constant
Now Td = GI
Controlling torque is provided by the spring and is proportional to the angular deflection of the
pointer.
Tc  
Tc = Ks 
where
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Tc = Controlling torque in N-m

Ks = Spring constant in Nm/rad or Nm/deg
 = angular deflection in rad or degree
For the final steady deflection i.e., at equilibrium
Tc = Td
Ks  = GI

= ,, Hence   I------------------(1)

From the equ (1) ,it is further noted that the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional
to the current i.e.., quantity to be measured.
As the direction of the current through the coil changes, the direction of the deflection of the
pointer also changes. Hence PMMC instruments are well situated for the d.c., measurements.
In micro-ammeters and low range milli-ammeters upto 20 mA, the entire current to be
measured can be sent through the moving coil, because the instrument springs serve as current
leads to the moving coil. The current carrying capacity of the springs limit the current they can
carry safely to about 20 mA.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER:
It cosits of two windings called primary and secondary and transfers the energy from one
side to another by changing the voltage and current. It is a device used to decrease the current
level by stepping up the voltage and keeping the energy as constant. Hence these are basically step
up transformers.

Current Transformer
In the above circuit, the primary of the C.T is connected in series with the line carrying the
current to be measured and therefore the 1 0 current is dependent on the load connected to the
system whose current is to be measured,The 2 o is connected to the low range ammeter. As the 2 o
winding has more number of turns compared to the 1 o winding and the voltage is higher in this.
The secondary current is less than the primary current.
where, = Number of turns of primary winding

= Number of turns of secondary winding

We know that,
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

For a C.T, = =

where they represent the primary current in A, Secondary current in A, Primary and secondary
voltage in V.
From the above equ it is clear that, if the range of C.T is 500:5

Therefore., n= = 100

= 100

V2 =100V1

In order to decrease the secondary current by 100 times, the secondary voltage should be
increased by 100 times.
Effect of secondary winding open:
(i) C.T. are always used with the secondary winding closed
 Never open the secondary windings circuit of a C.T. while its primary winding is
energized
 Failure to this may lead to serious consequences for both.

(ii)In case of P.T., the current flowing in the primary winding is largely the reflection of that
flowing in the secondary circuit.
 whereas, in case of a C.T., the primary winding is connected in series with the
line whose current is being measured.
 This current is in no ways controlled or determined by the condition of secondary
winding circuit.
(iii)Under normal operating conditions, both primary and secondary windings produces mmf,
which act against each other
(iv)If the secondary winding is open-circuited when the primary winding is carrying current
 the primary mmf remains same while the open secondary mmf reduces to zero
therefore, the resultant mmf is very large (i.e., equal to primary mmf =IpNp) – this
large mmf produces a large flux in core till it saturates
 this large flux linking the turn of secondary winding would induce a high voltage
in the secondary winding which could be dangerous to the transformer insulation
and to the person operating it
 Also, the eddy current and hysteresis loses would be very high under this
condition
• thus the transformer may be overheated and completely damaged
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

• Even if this does not happen, the core may become

permanently magnetized and give erroneous results.

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER(P.T):
The basic principle of P.T is same as that of C.T., i.e., the primary winding is connected
across the high voltage line whose voltage is to be measure and the secondary is connected to the
low range voltmeter coil. One end of the secondary winding is always grounded for safety
purpose.

Measurement of power using C.T and P.T:

The circuit below shows the circuit for measurement of power in high voltage and high
current circuit using wattmeter and instrument transformers.

Potential Transformer
From the above circuit diagram it is clear that the primary winding of C.T is connected in
series with the load and the secondary is connected in series with an ammeter and the current coil
of a wattmeter. The primary winding of P.T is connected across the supply voltage and the
secondary is connected across voltmeter and the pressure coil of the wattmeter.
Measurement of Energy using C.T and P.T :
The circuit connections of single phase energy meter is exactly similar to the connections
of wattmeter along with C.T and P.T for power measurement. The only difference in that, the
pressure coil of wattmeter is replaced by pressure coil of energymeter and the current coil of
wattmeter is replaced by current coil of energy meter.
Advantages of Instrument transformers:
(i) High voltage and high current can be measured using low range voltmeter and ammeter
along with the instrument transformer
(ii)The rating of low range meter can be fixed irrespective of the value of high voltage or
current to be measured.
(iii)Wide range of voltage or current can be measured using a single low range meter.
(iv)A single transformer can economically feed several instruments.

The disadvantage the instrument transformers can be used only for a.c circuits and not for d.c
circuits.

UNIT 3- AC/DC BRIDGES AND INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS

Maxwell's AC bridge and balance equation in terms of resistance

AC bridge:
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

When the four resistive arms of the basic Wheatstone bridge are replaced by impedances
and the bridge is excited by an AC source and it is shown in the figure.

Basic AC bridge
It is capable of measuring complex impedances. Unlike the Wheatstone bridge, two balance
conditions must be statisfied. Such a bridge must balance both the resistive and reactive
components before the detector indicates a null. In general, the balance equations, in polar form, of
the bridge are
(Z1 1)(Zx x) = (Z2 1)(Z3 x)

Z1 Z x  1  X) = Z 2 Z3  2  3)
Balance for the resistive component in an AC bridge is usually obtained by the adjustment of a
precision variable resistance. Balance for the reactive component is obtained from a similar
reactance in an adjacent arm of the bridge, or from an opposite reactance in an opposite arm. In
most circuits, the reactance is in the form of a fixed precision capacitor, either in series or parallel,
with a variable resistance. Two conditions must be met for the AC bridge to be balanced. The first
condition requires that the magnitudes of the four impedances satisfy this relationship.

Z1 Z x = Z2 Z 3

The second condition relates the impedance angles.

1 + x = 2 + 3

As a consequence , when the bridge is balanced, the voltage across Zx and Z2 must be equal both
in amplitude and phase.

Maxwell bridge:

The Maxwell bridge or Maxwell-Wien bridge is used to measure both a given inductance and its
series resistance by comparison to a standard capacitance. Using a capacitance as a standard offers
several advantages. Capacitors are easy to shield and they produce almost no external field of their
own. In addition, they are compact and fairly expensive.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

The Maxwell bridge

For balance, the resistors R1 and R2 are variable and R3 and C1 are fixed value standards. At
balance, the equations are

Z x = Z 2Z 3Y 1 ---------------------------(1)

where Y1 is the admittance of arm 1.

Therefore Z3 = R3; Z2 = R2 and Y1= + jC1

Substituting these values in equ (1)

Zx = Rx + jLx = R2 R3( + jC1)

Equating the real and imaginary terms

Rx = and Lx = R2 R3 C1

The balance is independent of frequency. When used in a balanced commercial bridge with
calibrated dials, both the values of the inductance and Q factor are read directly from the dial
settings. Using the Q factor for a series L-R equivalent circuit, the series resistance can be

found from Rx =

Advantages:

(i) The frequency does not appear in any of the two equations
(ii) The two balance equations are independent, if the values of R1 and C1 as variable elements
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

(iii) This bridge yields simple expression for unknown L x and Rx in terms of known bridge
elements.
(iv) This bridge is very useful for measurement of a wide range of inductance at power and
audio frequencies.
Disadvantages:
(i)This bridge is limited to measurement of low Q coils (1< Q < 10)
(ii)It requires a variable standard capacitor which may be very expensive if calibrated to a high
degree of accuracy.
Kelvin double bridge and how it is used in the measurement of low resistance.

Kelvin's double bridge

This consists of the double bridge. Because it incorporates a second set of ratio arms. The
second set of arms, m and l, connect the galvanometer to a point f at the appropriate potential
between c and d and it eliminates the effect of the resistance R y. The ratio of the resistances of
arms m and l is the same as the ratio of R 1 and [Link] galvanometer indication is zero when
the potentials at a and f are equal. Vab = Vbef
But,

Vab = ---------------------(1)

and V= I

Substituting for V in equ (1), we get

---------------------(2)

Similarly,
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

but

Wheat stone bridge.

The simplest form of bridge is for the purpose of measuring resistance and is called the
wheatstone bridge. This bridge is widely used for precision measurement of resistance from 1Ω to
the low mega ohm range. It is the most accurate method available for measuring resistance and is
popular for laboratory use.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

Wheatstone bridge

This bridge consists of four resistive arms, together with a DC source V and null detector. The
null detector may be galvanometer (G) or other sensitive current meter.

The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference between C and D.
When the current through the galvanometer is Zero, the circuit said to be balanced. Here the
bridge is balanced when the potential difference across C and D is zero.

i.e., I1 R1 = I2 R2 -----------------------(1)

If the galvanometer current is zero, the following conditions should be satisfied.

I1 = I3 =

I2 = I4 =

Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in equation (1) we get

SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

The above equ is the well known expression for balance of the wheatstone bridge. Here, the
unknown resistor is R4 and R4 can be focused as follows;

The resistors R1 and R2 are called ratio arms and resistor R3 is called standard arm of the
bridge.

The measurement of the unknown resistance i.e.., R 4 is independent of the characteristics or

the calibration of the null detecting galvanometer, provided that the null detector has sufficient
sensitivity to indicate the balance position of the bridge with the required degree of precision.

Guarded Wheatstone bridge:

The basic wheatstone bridge circuit is useful in most cases, but its performance deteriorates
substantially when measuring high resistances, such as the insulation of cables and other
materials.

Resistances of this type are generally greater than 1 MΩ. The major problem of high
resistance measurement is the leakage current that travels around and over the binding post of the
resistor being measured. Because these currents can bypass the resistor being measured and flow
through the detector branch, they affect the measurement.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

To reduce this measurement error, the leakage current is diverted away from the unknown
resistance by using a guard wire and guarding. The guarding surrounds the positive terminal post
of the bridge circuit , and minimizes the leakage current by minimising the potential difference.
Only the current flowing through Rx flows through the detector , as a result , of which a true
reading is obtained.

Applications of wheatstone bridge:

(i) To measure the D.C resistance of various types of wire either for the purpose of quality control
of the wire itself, or of some assembly in which it is used.

(ii)This bridge is also used extensively by telephone companies and others to locate cable faults.

Disadvantages;

(i0For low resistance measurements, the resistance of the leads and contacts become significant
and introduces an error. This error can be eliminated by kelvin's double bridge.

(ii)The other main difficulty in wheatstone bridge is the change in resistance of the bridge arms
due to the heating effect of current through the resistance. The rise in temperature causes a change
in the value of the resistance and excessive current may cause a permanent change in value.

5(a).Find the equivalent parallel and capacitance that causes a wien bridge to null if the
following components are given:R1 = 8kΩ, C1 = 6µF, R2 = 30kΩ, f= 2.5 kHz, R3 = 1kΩ, R4 =
100kΩ. ([Link]/EEE-Dec 2008)

Solution:

Figure shows wien bridge circuit.

 = 2f = 2  3.14  2500 = 15.7 k rad/sec.

SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

= 375.16 Ω

= 589.13 mF.

(b)A Maxwell bridge is having bridge constants at balance as C1=0.01µF,R1 =470kΩ , R2

=5.1kΩ and R3 =100kΩ .Find the series equivalent of the unknown impedance.
Solution:
Figure shows the circuit diagram of Maxwell bridge.

UNIT 4
TRANSDUCERS FOR MEASUREMENT OF NON- ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS

The transducers can be classified as follows;

(i)On the basis of transduction form used
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

(ii) as primary and secondary transducers

(iii)as active and passive transducers
(iv)as analog and digital transducers
(v) as transducers and inverse transducers.
(i)Classification based upon principle of transduction;
The transducers can be classified on the basis of principle of transduction as resistive,
inductive, capacitive etc.., depending upon how they convert the input quantity resistance ,
inductance or capacitance respectively. They can be classified as piezoelectric, thermoelectric,
optical, magnetorestrictive etc..,
(ii)Primary and secondary transducers:
Transducers on the basis of methods of applications, may be classified into primary and
secondary transducers.
 When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon
is converted into electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the primary
transducer.
For ex:
A thermistor used for the measurement of temperature falls in this category. The thermistor senses
the temperature directly and causes the change in resistance with the change in temperature.
 When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output
being in some form other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for
conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of
secondary transducers.
For ex:
In case of measurement, bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts pressure first into
displacement , and then the displacement is converted into an output voltage by an LVDT . In this
case LVDT is a secondary transducer.
(iii)Active and passive transducers:
Transducers , on the basis of method of energy conversion used, may be classified into
active and passive transducers.
An active transducer generates an electrical signal directly in response to the physical
parameter and does not require an external power source for its operation. Such transducers draw
energy from the system under measurement. Active transducers are also called self generating
type transducers.
Typical example of active transducers are tacho-generators used for measurement of angular
velocity, thermocouples used for measurement of temperature, piezoelectric crystal used for
measurement of force.
Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e., resistance, inductance or capacitance
changes with the change in input signal, are called the passive transducers. These transducers
require external power source for energy conversion. These transducers may draw some energy
from the system under measurement. Typical examples are strain gauges, thermistor etc...
(iv) Analog and Digital Transducers:
Transducers , on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into analog and
digital transducers.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

Analog transducer converters input signal into output signal, which is a continuous function
of time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouple.
Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal, which is in the form of
pulses, i.e., it gives discrete output.
(v)Transducers and Inverse Transducers:
An inverse transducer is defined as a device which converts an electrical quantity into a
non-electrical quantity. It is a precision actuator having an electrical input and a low power non-
electrical output.
For ex:
A piezoelectric crystal and translational and angular moving coil elements can be employed
as inverse transducers. Many data indicating and recording devices are basically inverse
transducers. An ammeter or voltmeter converts electric current into mechanical movement and the
characteristics of such an instrument placed at the output of a measuring system are important.
Inverse transducers are most widely used in feedback measuring system.
Different types of inductive transducers
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or the passive type. The self
generating type utilises the basic generator principle. An inductive transducer is a device that
converts physical motion into a change in inductance. Transducers on the variable inductance type
work upon one of the following principles.
[Link] of turns
[Link] configuration
[Link] of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits
Transducer based on principle of change in self inductance with Number of turns;
The output may be caused by a change in the number of turns. The transducers shown below
are transducers used for the measurement of displacement of linear and angular movement
respectively. In both cases, as the number of turns are changed , the self inductance and the output
also change.

Transducers working on the principle of change in self inductance with change in

permeability:
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

In this the inductive transducer works on the principle of variation of permeability causing a
change in self inductance. The iron core is surrounded by a winding. If the iron core is inside the
winding, its permeability is increased , and so is the inductance. When the iron core is moved out
of the winding, the permeability decreases, resulting in a reduction of the self inductance of the
coil. The transducer can be used for measuring displacement

Variable permeability inductive transducer

Variable reluctance inductive transducer:

Variable reluctance type inductive transducer for measurement of linear displacement is
shown below, In such a transducer, length of magnetic path varies with the displacement and
reluctance of the magnetic circuit changes causing change in self inductance of the coil.

Variable reluctance inductive transducer

Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
Construction:
The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical
signals is the linear variable differential transformer. LVDT is a differential transformer consisting
of a single primary winding P and two secondary windings S 1 and S2 wound over a hollow bobbin
of non-magnetic and insulating material. The secondary winding has the equal number of turns
and are identically placed on either side of the primary winding. A movable soft iron core is
placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the
soft iron core. In order to overcome the problem of eddy current losses in the core, nickel-iron
alloy is used as core material and is slotted longitudinally.
Working:
Primary winding is connected to an ac source of voltage varying from 5 to 25 V and of
frequency ranging from 50Hz to 20 Hz. Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating
current source , it produces an alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating
voltages. The output voltage of secondary winding S1 is E S1 and that of secondary into a single
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

voltage signal, the two secondaries S 1 and S2 are connected in series opposition. Therefore the
output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages.
Differential output voltage E0 = Es1 = Es2
When the core is at its normal (NULL) position , the flux linking with both the secondary
winding are equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Thus at null position E s1 = Es2 .Since
the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the output voltage E 0 is
zero at null position.
Now if the core is moved to the left of the NULL position, move flux links with winding S 1
and less with winding S2 . Hence output voltage Es1 , of the secondary winding S1 , is more than
Es2, the output voltage of secondary winding S2 . The magnitude of the output voltage is , thus , E 0
= Es1 = Es2 and the output voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.

Construction
Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux linking with
winding S2 becomes larger than that linking with winding S [Link] output voltage Es2 of the
secondary winding is more than Es1, the output voltage of secondary winding S 1 . The magnitude
of output voltage is thus, E0 = Es1 = Es2 and is 180o out of phase with the primary voltage.
Thus the LVDT output voltage is a function of the core position. The amount of the voltage
change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount of movement of the core. Here,
we have an indication of amount of linear motion. By noting which output voltage is increasing
or decreasing we can determine the direction of motion. Any physical displacement of the core
causes the voltage of one secondary winding to increase while simultaneously reducing the
voltage in the other secondary winding. The amount of output voltage may be measured to
determine the displacement.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

Basic circuit
The figure shows the variation of the output voltage against displacement for various
position of the core. The curve is practically linear to small displacements. Presence of harmonics
in input supply voltage or harmonics produced in the output voltage because of saturation of iron
core also contributes to residual voltage. Stray magnetic fields may also be the cause for residual
voltage, which may be overcome by using a magnetic shield slotted longitudinally and fitted over
the transducer.

Advantages:
1. The output of LVDT is practically linear for displacements upto 5mm. The LVDT have a very
high range of measurement of displacement.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

2. LVDT has infinite resolution as it gives stepless output and it has got no mechanical element to
change output in discrete steps.
[Link] has high sensitivity. It usually varies from 10 mv/mm to 40 v/mm.
[Link] LVDT gives a high output and many time there is need for amplification.
[Link] LVDTs consume less than 1W of power.
Data Acquisition system and its types.
Data acquisition system consists of individual sensors with the necessary signal
conditioning, data conversion, data processing, multiplexing, data handling and associated
transmission, storage and display system.
Data acquisition generally relates to the process of collecting the input data in digital form
as rapidly, accurately, and economically as necessary. The basic instrumentation used may be a
standard digital panel meter with digital output, a shaft digitizer or a sophisticated high-speed high
resolution device. To increase the speed with which information is accurately converted, sample
and hold(S/H) circuits are used.
Objectives of Data Acquisition system:
1. It must acquire the necessary data, at correct speed and at the correct time.
[Link] of all data efficiently to inform the operator about the state of the plant
[Link] must be able to collect, summarise and store data for diagnosis of operation and record
purpose.
[Link] must be able to compute unit performance indices using on-line, real time data.
[Link] must be reliable , and not have a down time greater than 0.1%
Classification of Data Acquisition system:
[Link] data acquisition system:
The components of the analog data acquisition system are as follows;
(a)Transducer:
It is used to convert the physical quality into an electrical signal. The transducers such as
strain gauge , thermocouple piezoelectric devices, photosensitive devices are used. The transducer
generates an emf proportional to the physical quantity being processed.
(b)Signal conditioner:
It is for amplifying, modifying or selecting certain portions of such [Link]
conditioning equipment includes any equipment that assists in transforming the transducer output
to the desired magnitude or form required by the next stage of the data acqisition system.
(c)Multiplexing:
It is the process of sharing a single channel with more than one input. It accepts multiple
analog inputs with the help of multiplexer, we can transmit more than one quantity using same
channel. It becomes necessary in measurement systems when the distance between transmitting
and receiving point is large and many quantities are to be transmitted. Multiplexing is commonly
accomplished by either time or frequency sharing of the transmission channel between the
individual quantities.
(d)Calibrating Equipment:
Before each test there is a pre-calibration, and often after each test there is a post-
calibration. This usually consists of a millivolt calibration of all input circuits and shunt
calibration of all bridge type transducer circuits
(e)Integrating Equipment:
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

This block is used for integration of summation of a quantity. The digital techniques are
normally used for integration purposes.
(f)Visual Display devices:
These are necessary to monitor the input signal continuously. These devices include panel
mounted meters, numerical displays, single or multichannel CROs and storage CROs.
(g)Analog Recorders:
These are required to record type output signal. Analog recorders include strip chart
recorders, Duddell's oscillograph, magnetic tape recorders.
(h)Analog computers:
The function of a DAS is not only to record data acquired by the transducers and the sensors
but also to reduce this data to the desired form. An analog computer may be used as a data
reduction device. The output voltage of an analog computer can either be recorded in analog form
or be converted to a digital form for further computations.
(i)High speed cameras and T.V equipment:
In any industrial process such as engine testing, and aerodynamic testing it is not possible
for the test operator to have a view of the equipment being tested. Therefore , closed circuit TV is
used to enable the operator to make visual observation of the test. Also high speed cameras are
employed to obtain a complete visual record of the process for further analysis.

[Link] Data Acquisition system:

The essential functions of a digital data acquisition system are as follows;
(i) It handles the analog signals.
(ii) It performs measurement
(iii)It convertes analog signal into digital data and handles it.
The various components of the digital data acquisition system are as follows;
(i)Transducers:
Transducer converts physical parameters into electrical quantities Electrical quantities also
may be measured directly.
(ii)Signal conditioners:
Signal conditioner usually includes the supporting circuitry for the transducer. This circuitry
nay provide excitation power, balancing circuits and calibration elements. Strain gauge bridge
balance and power supply unit is an example of a signal conditioner.
(iii)Multiplexers:
The multiplexer accepts multiple analog inputs and connects them sequentially to one
measuring instrument.
(iv)Signal converter:
Signal converter translates the analog signal to a form acceptable by the analog to digital
converter. An example of this is an amplifier for amplifying low level voltage produced by strain
gauge or thermocouples.
(v)Analog to Digital converter:
It converts the analog voltage to its equivalent digital form. The output of ADC may be
displayed visually and is also available as voltage outputs in discrete steps for further processing
as recording on a digital recorder.
(vi)Auxilliary Equipment:
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

It consists of instruments for system programming functions and digital data processing.
Typical Auxilliary functions include linearising and limit comparison. Such functions may be
performed by individual instruments or by a digital computer.
(vii)Digital Recorder:
It records digital information on punched cards, perforated paper tape, magnetic tape,
typewritten pages or a combination of such systems. A digital printer used provides a high quality
hard copy for records amd minimising the labour of the operating staff.

UNIT V- DIGITAL INSTRUMENTATION

Different types of ADC converters.

Analog to digital converters is a digital network which converts analog signal in digital
signal. Analog to digital converter has two additional control signals. One is START and another
one is EOC.
Analog to digital converters are classified into two groups.
[Link] type
[Link] type
Direct type are classified as
[Link] type converter
[Link] type converter
[Link] or servo converter
[Link] approximation type converter
Indirect type are classified as
[Link] balancing analog to digital converter
[Link] slope analog to digital converter.

[Link] Approximation Method:

The figure shows an 8-bit converter which requires 8 clock pulses to obtain digital output. It
consists of successive approximation register, operational amplifier, and D/A converter. SAR is
used to find the required value of each bit by trial and error.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

When START command is given, SAR sets MSB, d 1=1 with all other bits to zero so that the
trial code is 10000 0000. The output V d from DAC is now compared with analog input V a. If Va 
Vd , then 1000 0000 is less than correct digital representation.
The MSB will remains at '1' and next bit is made '1' and further tested. But, when V a  Vd it
indicates that 1000 0000 is greater than correct digital representation. Now MSB is reset to '0' and
goes on to the next lower significant bit.
This procedure is repeated for all subsequent bits, one at a time , until all bit positions have
been tested. When DAC output crosses Va the comparator changes the state and this is taken as
end of conversion command. Now, the data available on SAR will be the digital equivalent of the
given analog signal.
Advantages:
[Link] resolution
[Link] is very versatile
[Link] speed.

[Link] slope Integration type ADC:

In this ADC, the voltage to time conversion process is used twice. It is a widely used (in
DVM & DMM ) type of ADC, based on integration of input voltage for a constant time, followed
by measurement of time required to discharge the integrating capacitor with a constant current.
In the dual slope technique, an integrator is used to integrate an input voltage for a fixed
period of time. The same integrator is then used to integrate with reverse slope, the reference
voltage, and the time required to return to the starting voltage is measured.

Schematic diagram of the integrator in DVM

The output of integrator shown is ;

------------(1)

where Vin = Input voltage

Vout = Output voltage
R,C = Integrator time constant components
t= Elapsed time from when the integration began
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

Block diagram of dual slope ADC

The figure above shows the typical dual slope conversion circuit. The system has a ramp
generator, comparator, AND gate, counter, display, clock and electronic switch.
The input of ramp generator is switched between the analog input voltage (V in ) and a
negative reference voltage (-Vref). The analog switch is controlled by the most significant
bit(MSB) of the counter. When the MSB is logic zero, the voltage being measured is connected to
the ramp generated input and when the MSB is logic one, the negative reference voltage is
connected to the ramp generator.
The conversion cycle can be divided into two distinct steps. First the counter is reset and V in
is connected to the input of the ramp generator. This causes a positive going ramp voltage.
Assuming an eight bit counter, the counter will count up from 00000000 2 to 011111112. The slope
of the ramp, during this period is given by Vin/RC.
When the binary count reaches 100000002, - Vref is connected to the input of the ramp
generator(integrator). This causes the ramp to go negative with a slope equal to -V ref/RC, and the
counter continues to count, until the ramp voltage again reaches zero. When the ramp voltage goes
below zero, the comparator output goes low, disabling the AND gate to the clock signal and
stopping the counter. The counter output is converted to decimal form and is displayed.

Charging and discharging slopes

SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

A large input signal produces a large slope(that of line A) and a smaller input signal
produces a smaller slope.(that of line C) .
Since t1 , the time for the MSB of the counter to reach a logic one is constant, the peak value
of ramp is proportional to the value of V in. The slope of the negative going ramp is constant ,
meaning that large values of the peak ramp voltage take proportionally longer time than smaller
values to return to zero. Thus time t 2 is a linear function of the value of V in and the number of
clock pulses counted during the time period t2 is proportional to the analog input voltage Vin. The
MSB of the count is not included in the final display value, as it is used only to control the
selection of Vin or - Vref.
The time period t1 produces full count, time period t2 must not exceed t1 or MSB of the
counter will again change to a logic zero on the way down, preventing the ramp from reaching
zero. This then establishes upper range limit for Vin i.e., equal to the absolute value of - Vref.
The products of the slope and time must be equal during the time period t 1 and t2, because the
changes in ramp values are equal.

-----------------(2)

-------------------(3)

where N1 and N2 are decimal counts proportional to t1 & t2 respectively.

Advantages:
[Link] accuracy
[Link] high input impedance
[Link] series mode rejection
[Link]-back signal is low
[Link] cost
[Link] sensitive to temperature variations and weather conditions
Diadvantages:
Slow conversion.
Digital to Analog converters and its types.
Digital to Analog converters are those which is used to convert digital signals into analog
signals. The role of DAC in instrumentation systems are that, in some applications it is required to
convert digital to analog signal before processing like computer driver CRT display and digital
control of automatic process control systems etc..,
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

The input is n-bit binary word and is combined with reference voltage to give an analog output
signal. The output of digital to analog converter is either a voltage or current.
The output voltage of n-bit DAC is given by,

where VR - Reference voltage

d1, ,.... - n-bit binary words

d1 - MSB with weight of

dn - LSB with weight of

The different types of digital to analog converters are

[Link] Weighted Resistor DAC:
The binary weighted resistor DAC uses operational amplifier to sum n binary weighted
currents derived from a reference voltage VR VIA current scaling resistors 2R,4R,8R....2nR.

Here, the switch positions are controlled by the digital inputs. When the digital input is one,
the corresponding switch is closed and digital input is zero, the switch is opened.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

Here, the operational amplifier is used as a summing amplifier. Due to the high input
impedance of op-amp, summing current will flow through feedback resistor R f .Now the total
current is,

The output voltage is the voltage drop across Rf and it is given as

when Rf = R, the output voltage becomes,

From the above equation analog output voltage is directly proportional to the input digital data..

2.R-2R Ladder:

In this the input to the ladder must switch from a voltage representing '1' to ground
representing '0'. It should never be left open circuited. The resistor which is load, is same for all
bits of digital input.
The switch positions d1, d2, d3 correspond to the binary word '100'. The circuit can be
simplified to the equivalent form. From the figure above , the equivalent resistance at node A with
respect to ground is R.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

The resistance between node B and ground = R+R =2R.

Now, the equivalent resistance at node B = 2R||2R =R
The resistance between node C and ground =R+R=2R
Now from the figure, the equivalent resistance at node C with respect to ground

The voltage at node C is calculated as

Then , output voltage

The output voltage of digital to analog converter is proportional to the sum of the weight
represented by the switches.
Advantages:
[Link] resolution
[Link] accuracy
[Link] requires only two values of resistors, R and 2R, regardless of number of bits digital
input.

[Link] R-2R ladder DAC:

SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

The current produced by the reference voltage Vref at the node A is given by

This splits equally into two branches I which also have equal resistance, each of value 2R. The
current I2 on the horizontal line, then splits equally into two branches at node B and so on(I/4, I/16
and so on) resulting in the binary weighted currents. These currents are summed by the op-amp.
By the principle of superposition, the output voltage is

(since R=R0)

For n-bit R-2R inverted DAC, the output voltage is given by

The R-2R ladder and inverted R-2R ladder network is called as 'current switched ' R-2R ladder.
Advantages:
[Link] is constructed by resistors having two values only. They are R and 2R.
[Link] R-2R ladder networks are available on monolithic ICs, thus giving a high degree of
precision.
Disadvantage:
[Link] additional resistor is required for each bit as compared to the weighted resistor DAC.
[Link] is meant by piezoelectric transducer and explain its modes of operation:

A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain

surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by the application of a
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

mechanical force. This potential is produced by the displacement of charges. The effect is
reversible also., i.e., if a varying potential is applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change
the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it.

This phenomenon is known as piezoelectric effect. The word piezo is a Greek word
meaning force or pressure. Elements exhibiting piezoelectric qualities are called electro-resistive
elements .

Materials for piezoelectric transducers:

Common piezoelectric materials include rochelle salt, ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate(ADP), quartz and ceramics made with barium titanate, dipotassium tartrate, potassium
dihydrogen phosphate and lithium sulfate and these are used in real applications.

The piezoelectric effect can be made to respond to mechanical deformations of the

material in many different nodes. The modes can be
(a)thickness expansion
(b)transverse expansion
(c)thickness shear
(d)face shear
The mode of motion employed depends on the shape of the body relative to the crystal
axis and location of the electrodes. A piezoelectric element used for converting mechanical
motion to electrical signals may be thought as charge generator and a capacitor. Mechanical
deformation generates a charge and this charge appears as a voltage across the electrodes. The
output voltage E0 = Q/C. The piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force produces a
voltage of one polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity.
A crystal is placed between a solid base and the force summing member. An externally
applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port, applies pressure to the top of the
crystal. This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of applied pressure.
The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface and charges are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied force.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

----------(1)
where d= crystal charge sensitivity in coulombs per newton (C/N)and is constant for a given
crystal cut.
F= applied force in newton
The force F causes a change in thickness of the crystal by in metre and so

--------(2)

where A= area of crystal in m2

E= Youngg's modulus of elasticity in N/m2
t=thickness of the crystal in m
The change at the electrodes gives rise to an output voltage E0 and is given by the expression

---------------(3)
where Cp =Capacitance between the electrodes of the crystal

Since ;

p= is the pressure in pascals applied on the crystal.

where is the voltage sensitivity on the crystal

Above expression can also be written as

Modes of operation of piezoelectric crystals:

The piezoelectric crystals are used in many modes. These are (i)Thickness shear(ii)Face
shear(iii)Thickness expansion and (iv)Transverse expansion.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

Equivalent circuit of piezo-electric transducers

The basic equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric transducer is

The source is a charge generator. The value of the charge is Q=dF. The charge generated is
across the capacitance Cp of the crystal and its leakage resistance is Rp.
The charge generator can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source having a voltage of

Advantages of piezoelectric transducers:

[Link] transducers are generally small in size, light in weight and very rugged in
construction
[Link] transducers are self generating type as they do not need external power
[Link] transducers have very good high frequency response. They provide flat frequency
response from 1Hz to 20 kHz, the natural frequency being of the order of 50 kHz.
SEM/YEAR: IV/II EE3403 Measurements and Instrumentation

[Link] outputs are quite large

Disadvantages of piezoelectric transducers:
[Link] output voltage is affected by temperature variations of the crystal
[Link] can be used for dynamic measurements only