Course Code: CSE 3113

Lecture 2
Network Models

M.d. Ashiquzzaman Rahad

BSc. in CSE
Khulna University, Khulna.
Lecturer (Contractual)
Northern University of Business and Technology Khulna
 Topics
• What is Protocol Layering?
• Need for Protocol Layering
• Principles of Protocol Layering
• Logical vs. Physical Connections
• The TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Layered Architecture in an Internetwork
• Description of Layers - Physical
• Description of Layers - Data Link
• Description of Layers - Network
• Description of Layers - Transport
• Description of Layers - Application
• Encapsulation and Decapsulation
• Addressing in TCP/IP
• The OSI Model
• OSI vs. TCP/IP
• Why OSI Lacks Success?
 What is Protocol Layering?
In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver
and all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol; when the communication is
complex, we may need to divide the task between different layers, in which case we need a protocol at
each layer, this is called Protocol Layering.
 Need for Protocol Layering
Consider the two scenarios:
1. Single-Layer Communication
Maria and Ann talk face-to-face. Communication happens in one layer (speaking and listening). Even
simple communication follows rules such as greeting, taking turns speaking, and ending politely. These
rules form a protocol.
 Need for Protocol Layering
Consider the two scenarios:
2. Multi-Layer Communication
When Ann moves away, they communicate
through mail.
To keep messages secret, they use three layers:
Application Layer: Create and read the
message (plaintext).
Security Layer: Encrypt and decrypt the
message.
Delivery Layer: Send and receive the mail.
 Need for Protocol Layering
Why Protocol Layering is Important?
• Reduces complexity by dividing tasks into smaller parts.
• Provides modularity, so one layer can be changed without affecting others.
• Separates services from implementation (how a task is done doesn't matter as long as it
works).
• Allows intermediate devices in networks to use only the layers they need.

Disadvantage
• Introduces some overhead because each layer must interact with the layers above and below it.
 Principles of Protocol Layering
First Principle: For bidirectional communication, each layer must be able to perform two opposite
tasks, one in each direction (e.g., encrypting and decrypting).
Examples:
• Layer 3: Talk ↔ Listen
• Layer 2: Encrypt ↔ Decrypt
• Layer 1: Send mail ↔ Receive mail
Second Principle: The objects exchanged between two identical layers at different sites must be
identical.
Examples:
• Layer 3: Plaintext ↔ Plaintext
• Layer 2: Ciphertext ↔ Ciphertext
• Layer 1: Mail ↔ Mail
 Logical vs. Physical Connections
Logical Connection: An imaginary direct connection between peer layers (layer-to-layer
communication).
Physical Connection: Communication that actually occurs through the physical medium.
Key Distinction: Protocols at the same layer can have a logical connection, but a physical connection
is only possible through the physical layers.
 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite
A hierarchical protocol suite used in the Internet today, made of interactive modules. The TCP/IP
protocol suite is the main set of protocols used in the Internet.
It is a layered (hierarchical) model, meaning each upper layer depends on services from lower layers.
Originally it had 4 layers, but it is now commonly explained as a 5-layer model.

5 Layers of TCP/IP Model

1. Application Layer – Provides services for user applications (web, email, etc.).
2. Transport Layer – Ensures end-to-end communication (reliability, error control, flow control).
3. Network Layer – Handles routing and logical addressing (IP).
4. Data Link Layer – Transfers data between devices on the same network (frames, MAC
address).
5. Physical Layer – Sends raw bits through the transmission medium.
 Layered Architecture in an Internetwork
• Hosts (Sender/Receiver): Use all 5 layers (Application, Transport, Network, Data Link, Physical) to send
and receive data end-to-end.
• Routers: They forward packets between different networks. Work with the bottom 3 layers:
• Network
• Data Link
• Physical
• Link-layer Switches: They forward data within the same local network (LAN). Use only the bottom 2
layers:
• Data Link
• Physical
• Communication Scope:
• Top 3 layers (Application, Transport, Network): Handle end-to-end communication across the
entire internet.
• Bottom 2 layers (Data Link, Physical): Handle hop-to-hop communication between directly
connected devices.
Layered Architecture in an Internetwork
Layered Architecture in an Internetwork
 Description of Layers - Physical
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits across a link. Although it is the lowest layer in the
TCP/IP model, communication at this layer is considered logical because the actual transmission happens through a
physical medium (such as a cable or air).
The transmission medium does not carry bits directly—it carries electrical or optical signals. The physical layer does:
• Signal Conversion: Encodes binary bits into signals compatible with the transmission medium (e.g.,
electrical voltage for copper wires, light pulses for fiber optics, and electromagnetic waves for wireless).
Various protocols define how bits are transformed into signals.
• Transmission Media: Manages the actual hardware transmission mediums, including cables, connectors,
and wireless frequencies.
• Data Rate & Synchronization: Determines the speed of transmission (e.g., 1 Gbps or 10 Gbps) and
synchronizes the sending and receiving of bits.
• Hardware Interface: Directly interfaces with hardware network components such as Network Interface
Cards (NICs), hubs, repeaters, and connectors (like RJ45).
 Description of Layers - Data Link
The Data-Link Layer is responsible for moving data across a single physical link (like a specific wire or Wi-Fi
connection) between two nodes. While the Network Layer chooses the overall path, the Data-Link Layer handles the
actual "hop" between a router and the next device. It supports various hardware environments (LANs, WANs, wired,
or wireless) and transforms network-layer datagrams into specialized packets called frames.
Main Jobs of the Data-Link Layer
1. Framing: Encapsulates the network-layer datagram into a frame, adding necessary header and trailer
information for the specific link.
2. Hop-to-Hop Delivery: Manages the transfer of data between two directly connected devices or across a single
local network.
3. Support for Diverse Media: Provides a standard interface that allows the network layer to operate over any
physical medium (Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Fiber, etc.).
4. Error Handling: Depending on the protocol, it provides error detection (finding errors) and sometimes error
correction (fixing them) to ensure the integrity of the frame across the link.
5. Flow Control: Manages the pace of data transfer between two adjacent nodes to prevent the receiver from
being overwhelmed.
 Description of Layers - Network
The network layer connects one computer (host) to another across different networks. Its main jobs are:
• Host-to-host communication
• Routing packets through routers to reach the destination
Routers along the path choose the best route for each packet.

Main Protocol: IP (Internet Protocol)

• Defines the format of data (called a datagram).
• Defines IP addresses.
• Forwards packets from one router to the next.
• It is connectionless (no guaranteed delivery).
• It does not provide:
• Flow control
• Error control
• Congestion control
• (These are handled by the transport layer if needed.)
 Description of Layers - Network
Some other Important Protocols
• Routing protocols – Help routers build routing tables.
• ICMP – Reports network errors.
• IGMP – Manages multicast (group communication).
• DHCP – Assigns IP addresses to devices.
• ARP – Finds the physical (MAC) address from an IP address.
 Description of Layers - Transport
The Transport Layer provides a logical end-to-end connection between the source and destination hosts. It acts as a
bridge between the Application Layer and the network. It allows different programs to choose the protocol (TCP, UDP,
or SCTP) that best suits their needs (e.g., reliability vs. speed).
Main Jobs of the Transport Layer
1. Process-to-Process Delivery: Delivers data specifically to the application program running on the host (using
port numbers).
2. Encapsulation: Wraps application data into segments (TCP) or datagrams (UDP).
3. Connection Management:
1. TCP: Establishes a "logical pipe" (connection-oriented).
2. UDP: Sends independent packets without a setup (connectionless).
4. Flow Control (TCP): Matches the sender's speed with the receiver's capacity to prevent overwhelming the
destination.
5. Error Control (TCP): Ensures data arrives without errors and retransmits lost or corrupted segments.
6. Congestion Control (TCP): Reduces data transmission rates if the network becomes overloaded to prevent
packet loss.
 Description of Layers - Application
The Application Layer is the top layer where two programs (processes) communicate directly with one another. It
provides a logical end-to-end connection, allowing a user on one host to send requests and receive responses from a
service on another host. It contains many predefined protocols that handle specific tasks like web browsing, emailing,
and file transfers.
Main Jobs of the Transport Layer
1. Process-to-Process Communication: Enables specific software applications (like a browser or email client) to
talk to one another.
2. User Services: Provides the interface and protocols for common internet activities (e.g., HTTP for web, SMTP for
email, FTP for files).
3. Network Abstraction: Allows the user to interact with the network without needing to know the technical details of
how data is sent or routed.
4. Addressing (via DNS): Uses protocols like DNS to translate human-readable names (like [Link]) into
IP addresses that the lower layers can understand.
5. Remote Access and Management: Facilitates remote site access (SSH/TELNET) and network administration
(SNMP).
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
This process describes how data is packaged and unpackaged as it moves through the network layers. Each layer
treats the packet from the layer above as payload (data) and adds its own header (control information) to handle
specific tasks.

Encapsulation (Sender): Each layer adds a header (and sometimes a trailer) to the data received from the layer
above.

Application (Message) → Transport (Segment) → Network (Datagram) → Data-link (Frame).

Decapsulation (Receiver): Each layer removes the header, performs error checking, and delivers the payload to the
next higher layer
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 Addressing in TCP/IP
Names: Used at the Application layer to identify entities (e.g., [Link]).
Port Numbers: 16-bit identifiers used at the Transport layer to define specific processes.
Logical Addresses: IP addresses used at the Network layer to identify hosts globally.
Link-Layer Addresses: MAC addresses used at the Data-link layer to identify nodes within a local
link.
 The OSI Model
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), established in 1947, developed the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model in the late 1970s. ISO is the organization; OSI is the model.
The OSI model is not a protocol suite. It is a reference model used to understand and design
network architectures.
• Its goal is to enable different computer systems to communicate with each other, regardless
of differences in hardware or software.
• The model promotes flexibility, interoperability, and standardization in network communication.
• The OSI model consists of seven layers, each responsible for specific networking functions.
The OSI Model
 The OSI Model
Layer Name Description
Provides network services directly to end-user
7 Application
applications (e.g., email, web browsing, file transfer).
Translates data formats, handles encryption/decryption,
6 Presentation
and performs data compression.
Establishes, manages, and terminates communication
5 Session
sessions between applications.
Ensures reliable end-to-end delivery, error recovery, flow
4 Transport
control, and segmentation of data.
Determines the best path for data transmission and
3 Network
performs logical addressing and routing.
Provides node-to-node delivery, framing, physical
2 Data Link
addressing (MAC), and error detection.

Transmits raw bits over the physical medium and defines

1 Physical
electrical, mechanical, and procedural specifications.
OSI vs. TCP/IP
 Why OSI Lacks Success?

The OSI model failed to replace the TCP/IP protocol suite as the industry standard for three primary
reasons:

Timing and Cost: TCP/IP was already established and widely used by the time the OSI model was
finished. Organizations had already invested significant time and money into TCP/IP infrastructure,
making a transition too expensive.
Incomplete Definition: While the OSI model outlined the functions for all seven layers, it lacked fully
defined protocols and software for certain layers (specifically the Session and Presentation layers).
Performance Issues: Early implementations of the OSI model did not perform well enough to justify a
switch. It failed to demonstrate a significant enough advantage over TCP/IP to convince authorities to
adopt it.