BEEE203

Elements of Electrical Engineering

Module 5

Nisha C Rani
Asst. Professor
Dept of EEE
TOCE
1 6/19/2024
 Module 5
 Electricity bill: Power rating of household appliances
including air conditioners, PCs, laptops, printers, etc.
 Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical
energy, two-part electricity tariff, calculation of electricity
bill for domestic consumers.
 Equipment Safety measures: Working principle of Fuse
and Miniature circuit breaker (MCB), merits and demerits.
 Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and
its types, Safety Precautions to avoid shock, and Residual
Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB) and Earth Leakage Circuit
Breaker (ELCB).

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 Working Principle of Fuse
 The working principle of the fuse is “heating
consequence of the current”.
 It is fabricated with a lean strip or thread of
metallic wire.
 The connection of the Fuse in an electrical circuit
is always in series.
 When there is the production of a high level of
current electrical circuits, the fuse gets soften and
it makes the circuit be in an open condition.
 The extreme flow of current may direct to the
collapse of the wire and prevents the supply.
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 FUSE

Fuse rating = (power (watts)/voltage (volts)) x 1.25

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 The working scenario of this device is mainly dependent on the
heating condition of the current.
 The general functioning of the current, there will be a normal
flow of the current through the fuse. Because of the current flow,
heat will be developed in the fuse element and the generated heat
will be dissipated into the atmosphere.
 Due to this, the temperature level of the heat is maintained less
than the melting point values.
 Whereas in the fault conditions, there will be a flow of short-
circuited current through the device.
 The magnitude of this current value is more when compared with
that of normal current magnitude levels. This causes the
development of a high range of temperature in the fuse. So, the
device starts to melts and breaks down. In this case, the fuse
stands as a protective element from overload or short circuit.
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 Advantages &Disadvantages of Fuse
 Advantages of Fuse
 Cheapest way to protect the device from over power supply
 Easy to change faulty fuse
 Zero maintenance
 Operation is completely automatic
 Fuse can interrupt the current flow without producing any noise, flame
or smoke
 Disadvantages of Fuse
 Not suitable for overload
 The replacement or rewiring of fuse takes a lot of time
 Less breaking capacity
 Not reliable
 Not protected from under-voltage
 Can’t calibrate fuse accurately

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MCB-Miniature Circuit Breaker
 MCB is an automatic switch that opens when excessive
current flows through the circuit.
 It can be reclosed without any manual replacement.
 In the case of a fuse, once it has been operated, it must be
replaced or rewired.

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  MCB automatically switches off the electrical circuit in case
of any abnormal conditions such as overload and short circuit
conditions.
 MCB is an electro mechanical device which protects the
electrical system from over currents so as to avoid electrical
hazards such as fire.

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 Working Principle of MCB

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 Whenever continuous over current flows through MCB, the
bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending.
 This deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a mechanical
latch.
 As this mechanical latch is attached to the operating mechanism,
it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker contacts, and the
MCB turns off thereby stopping the current to flow in the
circuit.
 To restart the flow of current the MCB must be manually
turned ON.
 This mechanism protects from faults arising due to over current
or overload and short circuits

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  But during short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly,
causing electromechanical displacement of the plunger
associated with a tripping coil or solenoid.
 The plunger strikes the trip lever causing the immediate release
of the latch mechanism consequently opening the circuit
breaker contacts.

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 Advantages &Disadvantages of MCB

 Advantages of MCB
 Easy to restore the power supply
 Less maintenance cost
 High sensitivity than fuse
 It works quickly on overloading and under voltage.
 Disadvantages of MCB
 Costlier than the fuse
 There is a risk of overloading the circuit with unqualified
maintenance personnel than with parts removed

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 Earthing

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 What is earthing?
As per IEEE 80-2000, the process of transferring the immediate
discharge of electrical energy (fault current) directly to the
earth with the help of the low resistance path/wire is known as
earthing

Types of Earthing
• Pipe Earthing
• Plate Earthing

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 Plate Earthing

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 Plate Earthing
 From the name of this type of earthing, we can understand that
metal plates are used in it. For plate earthing, copper metal or G.I.
key plate is used.
 For plate earthing, a 90×90 cm pit is dug up to 3 meters deep in the
ground
 In that pit 60 cm long × 60 cm wide and 3.18 mm thick copper
plate or 60 cm long × 60 cm wide and 6.3 mm thick G.I. The key
plate is used as the earth electrode.
 Two pipes of diameter 19 mm and 12.7 mm are attached to that
plate. A funnel is attached to the upper end of a pipe of diameter 19
mm. One open copper/G.I. The wire is brought out of the ground
through a pipe with a diameter of 12.7 mm.
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  Sand (sand), salt and coal are spread around the earth electrode
one layer after another of 15-15 cm.
 This type of layer is laid up to 90 cm.
 After filling the rest of the pit with black soil, normally after 2.5
meters the pipe with earth conductor comes out, where earthing
connection is to be done.
 The pipe which has a funnel on its upper end.

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 Pipe Earthing

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 To create a Pipe Earthing system, a pit measuring 70 cm in length,
70 cm in width, and 3.75 m in depth is excavated in the ground.
 A 38mm diameter G.I. pipe, measuring 2 meters in length, is then
used as an earth electrode within the pit.
 The entire surface of the G.I. pipe is punctured with 12 mm holes,
spaced 7.5 cm apart from each other.
 The earth electrode is connected to two G.I. pipes using a reducing
socket, one with a diameter of 19mm and the other with a diameter
of 12.7mm.
 A funnel is attached to the upper end of the 19mm pipe to facilitate
watering of the earthing system.

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 Around that pipe, a 30 cm × 30 cm cement concrete tank is made
below the ground level, and it is covered with a lid made of cast
iron.
 In this way earthing is done by earthing the main switch and
earthing conductor from there to the required place.
 This type of earthing is done in generating stations and sub-stations.
and for house wiring.

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 Why Are Coal And Salt Used For Earthing Pit?

 Coal and salt are commonly used as additives for earthing pits to
improve the conductivity of the soil around the earth electrode.
 Coal is a good conductor of electricity and contains carbon, which
is an excellent conductor of electricity.
 When coal is added to the earthing pit, it helps to increase the
conductivity of the soil around the earth electrode.
 The coal also helps to prevent the soil from drying out, which can
reduce the conductivity of the soil.

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 Salt is another material that is often used in earthing pits. Salt is a
good conductor of electricity and when added to the soil around the
earth electrode, it helps to increase the conductivity of the soil.
 Salt also helps to maintain the moisture content of the soil, which is
important for maintaining good conductivity.
 In summary, coal and salt are used in earthing pits to improve the
conductivity of the soil around the earth electrode, and to prevent the
soil from drying out.
 This helps to ensure that the earthing system is effective in protecting
people and equipment from electrical hazards.

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 Electric Shock
It is believed that currents less
than 5mA are not dangerous.
The current range of 10 to 20
mA is dangerous because the
patient loses muscular control.

• When a person comes into direct contact with an electrical

energy source, he or she receives an electric shock.
• When electrical energy flows through a portion of the body,
it causes a shock. Exposure to electrical energy can range
from no harm at all or severe damage or death.
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 Safety Precautions To avoid Shock
 Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch
or try repairing any electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands.
It increases the conductivity of electric current.
 Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or
broken plugs.
 Always turn off the power source before starting any electrical work.
This includes turning off the circuit breaker or unplugging the device.
 Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) such as safety glasses,
rubber gloves, and non-conductive shoes.
 Use tools that are specifically designed for electrical work and ensure
they are in good condition.
 Avoid working in wet or damp conditions or with wet hands.
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 Safety Precautions To avoid Shock
 Do not touch electrical parts or wires with bare hands, use tools or
gloves instead.
 Keep your work area clean and free from any flammable or
combustible materials.
 Always follow proper wiring procedures, and use proper insulation
techniques.
 Do not work on live circuits, even if you are experienced.
 Make sure that any electrical work is done according to local codes
and regulations.
 If you are unsure of what to do, consult with a qualified electrician or
seek professional advice.

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 Safety Precautions To avoid Shock
 Never touch two different terminals at the same time
 Never remove the plug by pulling the wires connected to it
 Always use insulated screw drivers, pliers,line testers etc.
 Fuses must have correct ratings
 The sockets should be fixed at a height beyond the reach of the
children
 Use rubber soled shoes while working
 Use rubber gloves while touching any terminals or removing
insulation layer from a conductor

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 Safety Precautions To avoid Shock
 Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-
energized first by using a tester. When an electric tester touches a
live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up showing that an
electrical current is flowing through the respective wire. Check all
the wires, the outer metallic covering of the service panel and any
other hanging wires with an electrical tester before proceeding with
your work.
 Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any
receptacle at height in your home. An electrical surge will ground
you and the whole electric current will pass through your body. Use
a bamboo, wooden or a fibre glass ladder instead

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 ELECTRICITY BILL

 Power rating of household appliances including Air

conditioners, PCs, Laptops, Printers, etc.

 Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy

 Two-part Electricity tariff

 Calculation of electricity bill for domestic consumers

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 Power rating of household appliances
Sl. No Appliances Wattage (Min) Wattage (max)

1 Electric Stove 2000 W 2000 W

2 Dish washer 1200 W 1500 W

3 Air conditioner 800 W 1000 W

4 Electric iron 800 W 1500 W

5 Washing machine 500 W 500 W

6 Refrigerator 100 W 200 W

7 PC 100 W 450 W

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 Power rating of household appliances
Sl. No Appliances Wattage (Min) Wattage (max)

8 Ceiling Fan 60 W 80 W

9 Laptop 40 W 120 W

10 24 inch LED TV 40 W 60 W

11 DVD player 26 W 60 W

12 Tube light 22 W 22 W

13 Printer 10 W 50 W

14 LED light bulb 7W 10 W

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 Definition of “unit”
 The unit of electrical energy consumed is 1 kWhr.
 One kilowatt-hour is the electrical energy consumed by an electrical
appliance of power 1 kW when it is used for one hour.

 Thus,
1kWh = 1 kilowatt × 1 hour
= 1000 watt × 3600 seconds
= 1000 J/s × 3600 s
= 3.6 × 10^6 Joules
Thus,
1kWh = 3.6 ×10^6 Joules
 = 3.6 megajoules (MJ)

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 Tariff
 Definition:
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known
as Tariff.

 Why Tariff?
 Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.
 Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and
distribution system.
 Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical
energy eg. metering equipment, billing etc.
 A suitable profit on the capital investment.

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 Tariff
 The following factors are taken into account to decide the electricity
tariff:

• Types of Load
• Maximum demand
• The time at which load is required
• The power factor of load
• The amount of energy used

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 Tariff
Desirable Characteristics of a Tariff:

• Proper return: The tariff should be such that it ensures the

proper return from each consumer, i.e. the total receipt from
the consumers must be equal to the cost of production and
distribution with reasonable profit.
• Fairness: The tariff should be fair so that the different types of
consumers are satisfied with the rate of charge of electricity.
• Simplicity: The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary
consumer can easily understand it.
• Reasonable profit: Profit should be reasonable.
• Attractive: The tariff should be attractive so that large number
of consumers are encouraged to use electricity.

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 Two-Part Tariff
 When the rate of electrical energy is charged based on maximum
demand of the consumer and the units consumed, it is called a two-part
tariff.

 The total costs charged to the consumers consist of two components:

fixed charges and running charges.

 The fixed charges depend upon maximum demand of the consumer.

 The running charges depend upon the number of units (energy)

consumed by the consumer.

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 Two-Part Tariff

 Two–Part Tariff can be expressed as

Total Cost = Rs.[b (kW) + c (kWhr)]
where,
b = charge per kW of maximum demand
c = charge per kWhr of energy consumed

• Two–Part Tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have

appreciable maximum demand

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 Two-Part Tariff
Advantages:
(i) It is easily understood by the consumers.
(ii) It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum
demand of the consumer but are independent of the units consumed.

Disadvantages:
(i) The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact
whether he has consumed or not consumed the electrical energy.
(ii) There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the
consumer.

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 PROBLEMS
1. An electric boiler draws 6A current at 230V for 4 hrs. The
electricity costs Rs. 3/- per unit. Determine the total cost.

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 PROBLEMS
1. An electric boiler draws 6A current at 230V for 4 hrs. The electricity costs
Rs. 3/- per unit. Determine the total cost.

Solution:

Total energy consumed by the boiler,

E = Power * Time = V*I*t (Power – KW; Time – hours)
= 230*6*4 Watt-hour = 230*6*4*10^-3 KWhr
= 5.52 KWhr = 5.52 units

Total cost, C = No. of units * Cost per unit

= 5.52*3
= Rs. 16.56

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 PROBLEMS
2. The domestic power in an hour comprises of load as given in the table below:
Calculate (i) the total load and the current taken from the supply of 230 V
(ii) the total energy consumption per month [1 HP = 746 W]
Sl. No Item Load Hours used/day
1 8 lamps 100 W 10
2 3 fans 80 W 8
3 1 refrigerator ½ HP 24
4 1 heater 1000 W 1

Solution:
Sl. No Item Power (load) Hours Energy consumed per day
1 8 lamps 100 *8 = 800 W 10 800*10 = 8000 Whr
2 3 fans 80*3 = 240 W 8 240*8 = 1920 Whr
3 1 refrigerator ½ HP*1*746 = 373 24 373*24 = 8952 Whr
4 1 heater 1000*1 = 1000 W 1 1000*1 = 1000 Whr
Total Power, P = 2413 W Energy, E = 19872 Whr
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 PROBLEMS
solution continued….

(i) Total load, P= 2413 W

Current taken from the supply,
I = P/V
= 2413/230
= 10.49 A

(ii) Energy consumption per month = Energy consumed per day*No. of days
= 19872*30
= 596160 watt-hr
= 596.16 KWhr

Total Energy consumption per month = 596.16 units

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 PROBLEMS
3. A supply is offered on the basis of fixed charges of Rs. 30 per annum
plus 3 paise per unit or alternatively at the rate of 6 paise per unit for
the first 400 units per annum and 5 paise per unit for all additional
units. Find the number of units taken per annum for which the cost
under the two tariffs becomes the same.
Solution:
Let x (>400) be the number of units taken per annum for which the
annual charges under the two tariffs become equal.
Annual charges in first tariff = Rs. (30 + 0.03*x)
Annual charges in second tariff = Rs. [(0.06*400) + (x-400)*0.05)]
= Rs. [24 + 0.05*x - 20]
= Rs. [4+0.05*x]
As the charges in both tariffs are equal, (30 + 0.03*x)= (4+0.05*x)
47 x = (30 – 4)/(0.05-0.03) = 1300 units = 1300 kwhr 6/19/2024
 PROBLEMS
4. A consumer has a maximum demand of 200 kW at 40% load factor. If
the tariff is Rs. 100 per kW of maximum demand plus 10 paise per
kWh, find the overall cost per kWh.
Solution:

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 PROBLEMS
[Link] maximum demand of a consumer is 20 A at 220 V and his total
energy consumption is 8760 kWh. If the energy is charged at the rate
of 20 paise per unit for 500 hours use of the maximum demand per
annum plus 10 paise per unit for additional units, calculate : (i)annual
bill (ii) equivalent flat rate.
Solution:

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 PROBLEMS
Solution continued..

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 Residual Current Circuit
Breaker (RCCB)
 The Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB) or commonly
known as the circuit breaker is an electrical safety device that
cuts off the electricity supply immediately upon detecting
leakages that may result in an electric shock.
 Current leakages can be caused by factors such as ageing or
exposed wires, faulty electrical appliances, and damaged
insulation.

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 RCCB

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 Residual current circuit breaker
working principle
 When there is no fault in the circuit, the current flowing
through the phase wire equals the current flowing through
the neutral wire. Both wires coil around the core an equal
amount, creating opposing magnetic fields. In this instance,
no current flows through the sensing coil.
 When there is earth leakage, current flows from the phase
wire to earth. This creates an imbalance between the phase
and neutral. Therefore, the two currents' magnetic fields are
not in balance.
 The flux between the two fields creates an electromotive
force that acts on the sensing coil. This creates a current
flow through the sensing coil and relay. The relay forces the
breaker contacts to open, stopping current flow through the
circuit breaker.

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  An RCCB consists of a toroidal transformer with three
coils: one for the live wire, one for the neutral wire,
and one for the sensing coil.
 The live and neutral coils produce equal and opposite
magnetic fluxes when the currents are balanced.
 When there is an imbalance, a residual magnetic flux is
generated, which induces a emf in the sensing coil.
This activates a relay that opens the contacts of the
RCCB and disconnects the circuit.

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 Advantages Residual Current Circuit
Breakers
 Some of the advantages of using RCCBs are:
 They provide protection against electric shocks by detecting
leakage currents as low as 10 mA.
 They prevent fires and damage to equipment by interrupting
faulty circuits quickly.
 They are easy to install and operate with simple test and reset
buttons.
 They are compatible with different types of loads and
currents (AC, DC, high-frequency).
 They can act as main disconnecting switches upstream of any
derived miniature circuit breakers (MCBs).

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 Disadvantages of Residual Current
Circuit Breakers
 They do not provide protection against overcurrents or
short circuits, which can cause overheating and melting of
wires. Therefore, they must be used in series with an MCB
or a fuse that can handle the rated current of the circuit.
 They may trip unnecessarily due to external factors such as
lightning, electromagnetic interference, or capacitive
coupling. This can cause inconvenience and loss of
productivity.
 They may fail to trip due to internal factors such as
corrosion, wear, or mechanical jamming. This can
compromise the safety of the circuit and the users.
 They are more expensive and bulky than MCBs or fuses.

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 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker ELCB
 An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker is a safety device used in
Electrical circuits with high Earth impedance to prevent the risk of
Electrical shock.
 ELCB is a voltage operated device.
 ELCB detects small stray voltages across metal enclosures of
electrical installations and interrupts the circuit if the voltage level
exceeds danger threshold.
 Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers were invented almost 60 years ago
and once quite widely used in electrical installations.
 However, since the invention of RCCB – an improved protection
device, the use of ELCBs has come down.

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 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker ELCB
 Figure below depicts the schematic of this device.

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59 6/19/2024
  Earth leakage describes an abnormal or unintended state when
electrical current leaks from an electrical appliance or circuit to
the earth. The following are the most common reasons why earth
leakage occurs:
 Insulation failure: Insulation failure (Figure 2) can occur due to
age, temperature, or physical damage to the insulation.
 Imperfect electrical connections: Loose or poorly connected
electrical joints.
 Poor earthing systems: If the earth connection is not of
sufficient quality or resistance, it can cause current to flow to
earth.
 Use of faulty equipment: Faulty electrical equipment, such as
a damaged appliance, can cause earth leakage.
 Human error: Improper installation can cause earth leakage.

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  As depicted in the picture, the device consists of double pole
switch connecting the supply and load sides.
 This double pole switch is internally connected to a solenoid trip
coil.
 The trip coil is connected between Earth and the exposed metallic
frame of the electrical installation.
 As seen in the picture, Terminal E of the trip coil is connected to
Earth electrode and Terminal F is connected to metallic enclosure.
 During normal operation, the double pole switch is closed and the
current flows from supply to load side through the two lines
(Phase, Neutral). During this period, there is no current flowing
to earth between terminal F and E. Therefore the voltage between
terminal E and F is negligible (almost Zero).

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  In case of a fault condition, the voltage on terminal F
connected to exposed metal work rises up and the voltage at
terminal E is at zero potential. Thus, there rises a potential
difference between terminals E and F. This causes the
connected trip coil to operate. The movement of trip coil
then opens up the double switch and thus breaks the circuit.
 There is a test button seen. It is used to test the operation of
ELCB. When it is pressed, it temporarily connects the
terminal F to line via test resistor. It disconnects the supply
back to metal enclosure so as to avoid dangerous electrical
current back to the metallic enclosure.

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  The working principle of voltage ELCB is quite simple. One
terminal of the relay coil is connected to the metal body of the
equipment to be protected against earth leakage and other
terminal is connected to the earth directly.
 If any insulation failure occurs or live phase wire touches the metal
body, of the equipment, there must be a voltage difference appears
across the terminal of the coil connected to the equipment body
and earth. This voltage difference produces a current to flow the
relay coil.
 Here the earth connection is necessary as the relay only operates
when the leakage current flows through it. if the current leaks
through any other parts of the circuit and flows through any other
unintended path, it will not break the circuit as the current must
flow through the relay in order to break the circuit.

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  Advantages
 Here are some of the advantages of voltage ELCB
 It helps in protection against electrical shocks.
 They are less sensitive and do not trip unnecessarily.
 They are less expensive.
 Disadvantages
 Here are some of the disadvantages of voltage ELCB
 It cannot sense the current leakage from phase to any other
earthed body.
 It cannot prevent electrical shock in case of touching the phase
conductor directly.
 It only trips when the leakage current flows through the earth
conductor.
 It requires an extra connection with the body of the equipment
and earth.
 It is less sensitive and cannot detect low leakage current.
 Electrical equipment that normally leaks voltage might trip ELCB
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