Biomolecules

For more study material and PYQs, checkout MUJstella app and website:
🌟 [Link]
1. Carbohydrates
Introduction
● Definition: Carbohydrates are organic compounds that include sugars, starches, and fibres. They
are the body's primary source of energy.
● Chemical Composition: They are primarily composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O).
The name 'carbohydrate' comes from this, as they can be seen as "hydrates of carbon."
● General Formula: Cn(H2)n
● Formation: Plants produce carbohydrates through photosynthesis. Common examples include
glucose, cane sugar, and starch.
● Chemical Nature: They are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or compounds that produce these
upon hydrolysis.
○ Aldehyde Group: Contains a terminal carbonyl group (CHO).

○ Keto Group: Contains an internal carbonyl group (C=O).

Classification
Carbohydrates are classified based on their behaviour upon hydrolysis.

A. Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)

● Definition: The simplest form of carbohydrates that cannot be broken down (hydrolysed) further.
● Classification:
○ Aldoses: Monosaccharides containing an aldehyde group (e.g., Glucose, Glyceraldehyde).
○ Ketoses: Monosaccharides containing a keto group (e.g., Fructose, Dihydroxyacetone).
● Sources: Naturally found in fruits, honey, and milk. Also added to processed foods like soft drinks
and cakes.
B. Oligosaccharides
● Definition: Carbohydrates that yield 2 to 10 monosaccharide units upon hydrolysis.
● Disaccharides: Yield two monosaccharide units upon hydrolysis.
○ Sucrose (Table Sugar): Hydrolyses to one glucose and one fructose molecule. ○
Maltose: Hydrolyses to two glucose molecules.
C. Polysaccharides (Complex Carbohydrates)
● Definition: Polymers that yield a large number of monosaccharide units upon hydrolysis. They are
not sweet and are called non-sugars.
● Linkage: Monosaccharide units are joined by glycosidic linkages. ● General Formula: (C6H10O5)n
● Examples:
 ○ Starch: The primary energy storage in plants. Found in rice, potatoes, grains, etc. It consists of
two components:
■ Amylose: A linear chain of glucose units.
■ Amylopectin: A branched structure of glucose units.
■ Glycogen: The main form of glucose storage in animals and fungi. It has a highly branched
structure.
○ Cellulose: A structural component of plant cell walls. It is a linear polymer of glucose. Humans
cannot digest it (dietary fibre).
● Sources of Complex Carbs:
○ Starches: Rice, oats, bread, potatoes.
○ Fibers: Brown rice, whole grains, fruits, vegetables.

Functions of Carbohydrates
1. Energy Source & Storage: Glucose is the main fuel for cells. Starch (in plants) and glycogen (in
animals) are stored forms of energy.
2. Structural Components: Cellulose forms plant cell walls, and chitin forms the exoskeletons of
arthropods.
3. Genetic Material: The sugars ribose and deoxyribose are essential components of RNA and DNA,
respectively.
4. Cellular Recognition: They are often linked to proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids (glycolipids) on
cell surfaces, playing roles in cell-to-cell communication.

Industrial Application: Cellulose-Based Water Filters

● Material: Cellulose is ideal for water filtration due to its high mechanical strength and hydrophilic
(water-attracting) properties. A common material used is cellulose acetate.
● Function: These filters remove impurities, particles, and pathogens from water, providing a
biodegradable and environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic filters.
● Construction Steps:
1. Material Selection: Choose cellulose source (paper, cotton, wood fibres).
2. Preparation: Cut, wash, and dry the material.
3. Layer Formation: Stack or compact the cellulose into a layer.
4. Attachment: Attach the layer to a filter medium or support structure.
5. Chemical Treatment (Optional): Modify properties, e.g., add antimicrobial agents.
6. Housing Assembly: Place the filter into a housing.
7. Testing: Test for filtration efficiency and flow rate. ● Advantages:
○ Environmentally friendly (renewable and biodegradable).
○ Cost-effective.
○ High porosity and large surface area for efficient filtration. ○
Good mechanical strength and chemical resistance.
● Limitations:
○ Low resistance to high temperatures.
○ May not efficiently remove certain contaminants like heavy metals.
 ○ Can clog easily and have a limited lifespan.
○ May affect the taste of water.
2. Nucleic Acids
Introduction
● Definition: Biopolymers that store and transfer genetic information.
● Two Main Types:
○ Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): The primary genetic material in most organisms. It is a
doublestranded helix.
○ Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): Involved in expressing the genetic information from DNA to synthesize
proteins. It is typically single-stranded.

Structure of Nucleic Acids

● Monomer: The basic building block is a nucleotide.
● Components of a Nucleotide:
1. Pentose Sugar: A 5-carbon sugar.
■ Deoxyribose in DNA. ■
Ribose in RNA.
2. Phosphate Group: A molecule of phosphoric acid (PO4).
3. Nitrogenous Base: A nitrogen-containing ring structure.
■ Purines (Double Ring): Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
■ Pyrimidines (Single Ring): Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) (in DNA only), and Uracil (U) (in RNA
only).
● Polymer Formation:
○ Nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the
phosphate group of the next.
○ This forms a sugar-phosphate backbone.
○ The polymer has a direction, referred to as the 5' and 3' ends.
● DNA Double Helix:
○ Two strands run in opposite (antiparallel) directions.
○ The strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases:
■ Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) (2 hydrogen bonds).
■ Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) (3 hydrogen bonds). Key
Differences Between DNA and RNA

Feature DNA RNA

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Bases A, G, C, Thymine A, G, C, Uracil

Structure Double-stranded helix Single-stranded

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
This describes the flow of genetic information:
DNA → (Transcription) → RNA → (Translation) → Protein

Applications
A. DNA & RNA Vaccines
● Mechanism: These vaccines use a piece of a pathogen's genetic material (DNA or RNA) to instruct
the body's cells to produce a specific protein from that pathogen. The immune system then
recognizes this protein as foreign and produces antibodies against it, providing immunity.
● Advantages over Traditional Vaccines:
○ Faster development and manufacturing.
○ Strong and long-lasting immune response.
○ Generally safer as they don't contain live virus particles. ○
Can be easily modified to target new variants.
● Examples:
○ DNA Vaccine: Vaccine for Rabies.
○ RNA Vaccine: Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines.

B. Molecular Cloning
● Definition: The process of making multiple identical copies of a specific gene or DNA segment. It
involves creating recombinant DNA (DNA from different sources joined together).
● Five Key Steps:
1. Cutting: Use restriction enzymes to cut the desired DNA segment from the source
chromosome.
2. Vector Selection: Cut a cloning vector (e.g., a bacterial plasmid) with the same restriction
enzyme.
3. Ligation: Join the DNA segment and the vector using an enzyme called DNA ligase to form
recombinant DNA.
4. Transformation: Transfer the recombinant DNA into a host cell (like bacteria).
5. Selection: Identify and grow the host cells that contain the recombinant DNA. ● Applications:
○ Sequencing genes and identifying mutations (e.g., for genetic diseases).
○ Investigating protein function.
○ Engineering organisms for specific purposes (e.g., producing human insulin in bacteria).

3. Proteins
Introduction
● Definition: Large, complex molecules made of one or more chains of amino acids.
● Building Blocks: There are 20 common amino acids. Recently, Selenocysteine (21st) and Pyrrolysin
(22nd) have also been identified.
● Bonding: Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds.
 ● Function: The specific sequence of amino acids determines the protein's 3D structure, which in turn
dictates its function.

Amino Acids
● Structure: Each amino acid has a central carbon atom bonded to:
1. An Amine group (−NH2).
2. A Carboxyl (Acid) group (−COOH).
3. A Hydrogen atom (H).
4. A unique Side Chain (R group), which differs for each amino acid.
● Classification:
○ Essential: Must be obtained from the diet.
○ Nonessential: The body can synthesize them.
○ Conditionally Essential: Become essential under certain conditions, like illness. Protein

Structure
Proteins have four levels of structural organization:
1. Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.
2. Secondary Structure: Local folding of the polypeptide chain into repeating patterns, such as the
alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheet, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
3. Tertiary Structure: The overall 3D shape of a single polypeptide chain, resulting from interactions
between the R groups.
4. Quaternary Structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) to form a
functional protein (e.g., haemoglobin).

Functions of Proteins
1. Catalysis (Enzymes): Speed up biochemical reactions (e.g., amylase, lipase).
2. Transport: Carry substances throughout the body (e.g., haemoglobin transports oxygen).
3. Mechanical Support: Provide structure and strength (e.g., collagen in skin, keratin in hair).
4. Regulation: Control cell behaviour (e.g., hormones like insulin, receptor proteins).
5. Movement: Enable muscle contraction (e.g., actin and myosin).
6. Immunity: Antibodies are proteins that defend against pathogens.
7. Adhesion: Help cells stick together to form tissues. Proteins in Food
● Dietary Importance: Essential nutrients that provide amino acids for building and repairing tissues.
● Sources: Meat, fish, dairy, eggs, beans, lentils, tofu.
● Whey Protein: A high-quality, rapidly absorbed protein derived from milk, popular as a supplement
for muscle growth and weight management.
● Meat Analogues / Plant-Based Proteins:
○ Definition: Plant-based foods designed to mimic meat. Made from sources like soy, wheat, or pea
protein.
○ Benefits: More environmentally sustainable, often rich in fibre and other nutrients, and suitable
for vegetarian/vegan diets.
4. Enzymes
Introduction
● Definition: Proteins that function as biological catalysts. They increase the rate of chemical
reactions without being consumed in the process.
● Mechanism:
○ Each enzyme has a specific 3D shape with an active site.
○ The reactant molecule, called the substrate, binds to the active site, forming an
enzymesubstrate complex.
○ The enzyme facilitates the conversion of the substrate into the product, which is then released.

Properties & Engineering Applications

● Properties: High specificity, high reactivity, stability under various conditions, and renewability.
● Applications:
○ Food Production: Baking, brewing, cheese making.
○ Detergents: Break down protein and fat stains.
○ Biofuel Production: Convert plant material into ethanol.
○ Bioremediation: Break down environmental pollutants.
○ Pharmaceuticals: Used in the production of antibiotics and other drugs.

Biosensors
● Definition: Analytical devices that combine a biological recognition element (like an enzyme) with a
transducer to detect a target substance.
● How they work: The enzyme specifically interacts with the target analyte. The transducer converts
this biological response into a measurable electrical signal.
● Example: A glucose biosensor uses the enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx). GOx oxidizes glucose,
producing hydrogen peroxide, which is detected by the transducer to measure blood glucose levels.
● Advantages: High sensitivity, specificity, and rapid response time.
● Limitations: Can be affected by temperature/pH, have a limited shelf-life, and may require frequent
calibration.

5. Lipids
Introduction
● Definition: A diverse group of organic molecules that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar
organic solvents. They include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids.
● Structure: Many lipids are related to fatty acids. They have a polar (hydrophilic) head and a
nonpolar (hydrophobic) tail. This property allows them to form structures like:
○ Lipid Bilayer: The foundation of cell membranes.
○ Micelle: Spherical structures used in digestion and cleaning. - Fats vs. Oils:
○ Fats: Solid at room temperature (e.g., butter, lard).
○ Oils: Liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil, sunflower oil).
Roles of Lipids
1. Energy Storage: The most concentrated form of energy storage in the body.
2. Insulation: A layer of fat under the skin helps insulate the body.
3. Cell Membrane Structure: Phospholipids form the basic framework of all cell membranes.
4. Hormone Synthesis: Steroid hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen) are derived from cholesterol, a
type of lipid.
5. Transport: Help transport fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). Engineering Applications

● Food Industry: Used as emulsifiers, for frying, and to improve texture/flavour.

● Cosmetics: Used in moisturizers and creams.
● Medical Devices: Used in lipid-based drug delivery systems.
● Biofuels: Lipids from vegetable oils or animal fats can be converted into biodiesel.
○ Process: Produced via transesterification, where fats/oils react with an alcohol (like methanol).
○ Advantages: Renewable, produces fewer emissions, and is biodegradable.
○ Limitations: Higher production costs compared to traditional diesel.