Environmental Science Module 2

MODULE 2
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

UNIT 2: ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Ecosystems: Concept of an ecosystem, Structure and function of an ecosystem - Producers,
Consumers, Decomposers; Food chains, Food webs, Ecological pyramids – Types; Characteristic
features, Structure and functions of forest ecosystem, Desert ecosystem, Aquatic ecosystem.
Biodiversity: Concept and value of biodiversity, Role of biodiversity in addressing new millennium
challenges, Hot spots of biodiversity, Threats to biodiversity, Man-wild life conflicts, Endemic,
Endangered and extinct species of India, Conservation of biodiversity – In-situ and ex-situ.
2.1. Ecosystem
All living organisms, whether plant or animal or human being is surrounded by the environment,
on which it derive its needs for its survival. Each living component interacts with non–living
components for their basic requirements form different ecosystem.
Definition
A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as ecosystem.
Thus an ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with one another and exchanging
energy and matter.
2.1.1. Structure of the Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:
(i) Biotic Components
(ii) Abiotic Components
(i) Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can produce
food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the
food chain rely on producers for food.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers are
further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
1. Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
2. Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be
carnivores or omnivores.
3. Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. Tertiary
consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.
4. Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on tertiary
consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain as they have
no natural predators.
5. Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they
help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

(ii) Abiotic Components

Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
2.1.2. Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
➢ It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders stability.
➢ It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.
➢ It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
➢ It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
➢ The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve the
exchange of energy.
So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an
ecosystem are:
Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic level to
another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and then to
decomposers and finally back to the environment.
Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is the major
site for decomposition.
Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various forms for
the utilisation by various organisms.

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

2.1.3. Types of Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands of
miles. There are two types of ecosystem:
(i) Terrestrial Ecosystem
(ii) Aquatic Ecosystem

(i) Terrestrial Ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:
a) Forest Ecosystem
b) Grassland Ecosystem
c) Tundra Ecosystem
d) Desert Ecosystem

a) Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and microorganisms that
live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
b) Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands
and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland ecosystems.
c) Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce.
These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of ecosystem is found in the Arctic
or mountain tops.
d) Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and scarce vegetation.
The days are hot, and the nights are cold.
(ii) Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into
two types, namely:
a) Freshwater Ecosystem
b) Marine Ecosystem

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

a) Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
b) Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

2.1.4. Important Ecological Concepts

(i) Food Chain
(ii) Ecological Pyramids
(iii) Food Web

(i) Food Chain

The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all plant life.
The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise their
food. During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed
on through successive trophic levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and
eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.

Food chain
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers
liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the producers.
(ii) Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the consumer
level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid. The
base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and secondary
consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quaternary consumers
are at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary consumers
outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend as the
other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful. These
grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mouse, which are comparatively less in number.
The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex
predators such as the brown snake eagle.

Pyramid of biomass

Pyramid of number

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

Pyramid of energy

(iii) Food Web

Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within a
single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains. In
a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer.

Food web
Difference between food chains and food web
In a linear food chains if one species gets affected (or) becomes extinct, then the species in the
subsequent tropic levels are also affected. But, in a food web, if one species gets affected it doesn’t

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

not affect other tropic levels so seriously. There are number of options available at each tropic
level.
Significance of food chains and food webs
1. Food chains and food webs play a very important role in the ecosystem. Energy flow and nutrient
cycling takes place through them.
2. They maintain and regulate the population size of different tropic levels, and thus help in
maintaining ecological balance.
3. They have the property of bio-magnification. The non-biodegradable materials keep on passing
from one tropic level to another. At each successive tropic level, the concentration keeps on
increasing. This process is known as bio-magnification.

2.1.5. Forest Ecosystem

These are the ecosystems having a predominance of trees that are interspersed with a large number
of species of herbs, shrubs, climbers, lichens, algae and a wide variety of wild animals and birds.
Forests are found in undisturbed areas receiving moderate to high rainfall and usually occur as
stable climax communities.
Depending upon the climatic conditions forests can be of various types:
a) Tropical Rain Forests
b) Tropical Deciduous Forests
c) Tropical Scrub Forests
d) Temperate Rain Forests
e) Temperate Deciduous Forests
f) Evergreen Coniferous Forests

a) Tropical Rain Forests:

• These are evergreen broadleaf forests found near the equator.
• These are characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall, all of which
favour the growth of trees.
• All through the year the climate remains more or less uniform.

b) Tropical Deciduous Forests:

They are found a little away from the equator and are characterized by a warm climate the year
round.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

Rain occurs only during monsoon. A large part of the year remains dry and therefore different
types of deciduous trees are found here, which lose their leaves during dry season.

c) Tropical Scrub Forests:

They are found in areas where the dry season is even longer. Here there are small deciduous
trees and shrubs.

d) Temperate Rain Forests:

They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. These are dominated by coniferous
trees like pines, firs, redwoods etc. They also consist of some evergreen broadleaf trees.

e) Temperate Deciduous Forests:

They are found in areas with moderate temperatures. There is a marked seasonality with long
summers, cold but not too severe winter and abundant rainfall throughout the year. The major trees
include broad leaf deciduous trees like oak etc.

f) Evergreen Coniferous Forests (Boreal Forests):

They are found just south of arctic tundra.
Here winters are long, cold and dry. Sunlight is available for a few hours only.
The trees have tiny, needle-shaped leaves having a waxy coating so that they can withstand
severe cold and drought.

2.1.6. Grassland Ecosystem

Grassland is an area of land that mostly contains grasses and there may be some trees. Grasslands
are found in Africa, North America, Central Asia, South America, and near the coasts of Australia.
The largest grasslands are in East Africa.
Three types of grasslands are found to occur in different climatic regions:
a) Tropical Grasslands
b) Temperate Grasslands
c) Polar Grasslands (Arctic Tundra)

a) Tropical Grasslands:
They occur near the borders of tropical rain forests in regions of high to average temperature and
low to moderate rainfall. These grasslands have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted trees.
During dry season, fires are quite common.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

In Africa, these are typically known as Savannas. The Savannas have a wide diversity of animals
including zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelopes etc.
b) Temperate Grasslands:
They are usually found on flat, gentle sloped hills. The winters are very cold but summers are hot
and dry. Intense grazing and summer fires do not allow shrubs or trees to grow. The soils in these
grasslands are quite fertile and therefore, very often these grasslands are cleared for agriculture.
In United States and Canada these grasslands are known as Prairies, in South America as Pampas,
in Africa as Velds and in Central Europe and Asia they are known as Steppes.
c) Polar Grasslands:
These are found in arctic polar region where severe cold and strong, frigid winds along with ice
and snow create too harsh climate for trees to grow. In summers the sun-shines almost round the
clock and hence several small annual plants grow in the summer. A thick layer of ice remains frozen
under the soil surface throughout the year and is known as permafrost.

2.1.7. Desert Ecosystem

These ecosystems occur in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation. About 1/3rd of our
World's land area is covered by deserts.
Deserts have little species diversity and consist of drought resistant or drought avoiding plants. The
atmosphere is very dry and that’s why in deserts the soil gets cooled up quickly, making the nights
cool.
Based on climatic conditions, deserts are classified into:
a) Hot and Dry Deserts:
The temperatures are warm and dry year-round. Some famous arid deserts include the Sahara
Desert that covers much of the African continent and the Mojave Desert located in the southwest
of the United States.
b) Semi-Arid Deserts:
These deserts are a bit cooler than hot and dry deserts. The long, dry summers in semi-arid deserts
are followed by winters with some rain. They are found in North America, Greenland, Europe, and
Asia.
c) Coastal Deserts:
These deserts are a bit more humid than other types of deserts. Although heavy fogs blow in from
the coast, rainfall is still rare. The Atacama Desert of Chile in South America is an example of a
coastal desert.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

d) Cold Deserts:
These deserts are dry and have extremely low temperatures in comparison to the other types of
deserts. The Antarctic is an example of a cold desert.

2.1.8. Aquatic Ecosystem

a) Pond Ecosystem:
These are small fresh water aquatic ecosystem where water is stagnant. They contain several types
of algae, aquatic plants, fishes and birds etc., They are used for washing clothes, bathing,
swimming, cattle bathing etc. and therefore get polluted.
b) Lake Ecosystem:
Lakes are usually big freshwater bodies with standing water. They have a shallow water zone called
Littoral zone, an open-water zone where effective penetration of solar light takes place, called
Limnetic zone and a deep bottom area where light penetration is negligible, known as Profundal
zone.
Eg. Dal lake, Naini lake etc.,
c) Stream Ecosystem:
These are freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Stream organisms have to face more extremes of
temperature and action of currents as compared to pond or lake organisms. They do not have to
face oxygen deficiency under natural conditions because the streams are shallow and have a large
surface exposed to air.
d) River Ecosystem:
Rivers are large streams that flow downward from mountain highlands and flowing through the
plains fall into the sea. The mountain highland part has cold, clear waters rushing down as water
falls with large amounts of dissolved oxygen. On the gentle slopes, the waters are warmer and
support a luxuriant growth of plants and less oxygen requiring fishes.
Moving down the hills, rivers shape the land. They bring with them lots of silt rich in nutrients
which are deposited in the plains and in the delta before reaching the ocean.
e) Ocean Ecosystem:
Oceans play a key role in the survival of about 2,50,000 marine species, serving as food for humans
and other organisms. They provide us iron, phosphorus, magnesium, oil, natural gas, sand and
gravel. Oceans are the major sinks of carbon dioxide.
The oceans have two major life zones:
Coastal zone: It is warm, nutrient rich shallow water. Due to high nutrients and ample sunlight
this is the zone of high primary productivity.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

Open sea: It is the deeper part of the ocean, away from the continental shelf (The submerged
part of the continent).

2.1.9. Estuary
An estuary is an enclosed coastal body, partially enclosed and consisting of brackish water with
one or more streams/rivers flowing into it. It is notable for its free connection to the open sea
Estuaries are important in our ecosystems as they filter out sediments and pollutants from water
bodies like rivers and lakes before it flows into the oceans, thus providing cleaner waters for marine
life.

2.2. Biodiversity
2.2.1. Definition:
“Biodiversity is the variation among living organisms from different sources including terrestrial,
marine and desert ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.”
Biodiversity describes the richness and variety of life on earth. It is the most complex and important
feature of our planet. Without biodiversity, life would not sustain.
The term biodiversity was coined in 1985. It is important in natural as well as artificial ecosystems.
It deals with nature’s variety, the biosphere. It refers to variabilities among plants, animals and
microorganism species. Biodiversity includes the number of different organisms and their relative
frequencies in an ecosystem. It also reflects the organization of organisms at different levels.
Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance. It provides us with nourishment, housing,
fuel, clothing and several other resources. It also extracts monetary benefits through tourism.

2.2.2. Types of Biodiversity:

The following are different types of biodiversity:
(i) Species Biodiversity
(ii) Genetic Biodiversity
(iii) Ecological Biodiversity

(i) Species diversity

Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular area. It is
the biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging from plants to different
microorganisms.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

(ii) Genetic diversity

It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms. Every individual of a
particular species differs from each other in their genetic constitution. That is why every human
looks different from each other. Similarly, there are different varieties in the same species of rice,
wheat, maize, barley, etc.
(iii) Ecological diversity
An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction with each
other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species living together
and connected by food chains and food webs. It is the diversity observed among the different
ecosystems in a region. Diversity in different ecosystems like deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc.,
includes ecological diversity.

2.2.3. Value of Biodiversity:

(i) Direct Value
(ii) Indirect Value
(iii) Option Value

(i) Direct Value:

Direct values are concerned with the enjoyment or satisfaction received directly by biological
resources. These are of two types:
a) Consumptive value (non-market value)
b) Productive value (commercial value)

a) Consumptive Value:
These include the value of nature’s products that are consumed directly such as firewood, fodder
and meat. Hunting, direct-consumption, (Collection of berries, mushrooms, herbs, plants etc.,) are
all consumptive uses.
b) Productive Value:
These include products that are commercially harvested for exchange in formal markets. This is
often the only value of biological resources that is reflected in the income accounts.
eg.: animal skins, ivory, medicinal plants, honey, bee-wax, fibers, gums etc.,
(ii) Indirect Value:
• It deals primarily with the functions of ecosystems. These do not normally appear in
national accounting systems, but they may outweigh direct values when they are computed.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

• Direct values are often derived from indirect values because harvested species of plants and
animals are supported goods and services provided by their environment.

Types of Indirect Values:

a) Non consumptive value
b) Social value
c) Ethical value
d) Aesthetic value

a) Non – Consumptive Value:

These are the indirect values of ecosystem functions such as the watershed protection,
photosynthesis, regulation of climate and production of soil, pollination, habitat for other species
etc.,
b) Social Value:
• Biodiversity in India, particularly, is important for its religious, spiritual and other cultural
uses.
• Many plants and animals have ritual significance.
• The entire ecosystem is utilized for cultural and spiritual purposes.
c) Ethical Value:
• Protecting biological diversity can be justified on ethical grounds as well as on economic
grounds.
• Ethical arguments assert that humans have a duty to protect species based on their intrinsic
value, unrelated to human needs.
• People should take action to prevent their extinction.
• The loss of one species have far-reaching consequences to biological community and
human society.
• People must learn to minimize the environmental damage and learn to live within the
ecological constraints of the planet.

d) Aesthetic Value:
• Enlightened self interest, arguing that preserving biodiversity and developing our
knowledge of it will make us better and happier people.
• A loss of biodiversity could very well limit the creative energies of people in the future and
thus restrict the development.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

(iii) Option Value:

These values include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be
explored. Thus option value is the value of knowing that there are biological resources existing on
this biosphere that may one day prove to be an effective option for something important in the
future.

2.2.4. Role of Biodiversity in addressing new Millennium Challenges:

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were formally established when the United Nations
General Assembly adopted the Millennium Declaration in 2002. They address issues of poverty
eradication and sustainable development through a set of targets and dates. Achieving these targets
is the responsibility of national governments.
(i) Role of Biodiversity in eradicating Poverty
Rural households derive a significant proportion of their food and income from biological resources
and, therefore, the availability and sustainability of biological resources is of direct relevance to
poverty reduction for these people. Additionally, a large proportion of poor people live in marginal
environments and in areas with low agricultural productivity or in fragile lands. In these
environments, there is a high dependency on genetic species and ecosystem diversity to support
their livelihoods.
(ii) Gender and Education: Links to Biodiversity
Biodiversity directly affects access to education and women’s empowerment by impacting on the
time taken for women to perform certain household duties, and thus the time available for education
and other activities. Degradation of biological resources and subsequent non-availability of fuel,
non-timber forest produce and potable water can result in significant time being spent collecting
these resources every day.
(iii) Health Goals and Biodiversity
Biodiversity plays a crucial role not only in providing medicines to deal with issues of health and
nutrition, but ecosystems play a significant role in dealing with diseases like malaria and others.
The World Health Organisation estimates that 80% of the world’s population from developing
countries relies mainly on traditional medicines for primary health care. Of the 119 chemical
compounds derived from 90 plant species, 74% of these are used as drugs.
(iv) Environmental Sustainability and Biodiversity
Current estimates are that approximately 1 billion people are affected by soil erosion and land
degradation due to deforestation, overgrazing and agriculture. Water scarcity is a major issue in
more than 20 developing countries. Over 2 billion people continue to rely on biomoss fuels and

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

traditional technologies for cooking and heating and up to 2 billion people have no access to
electricity. Shortage of wood fuel imposes time and financial costs on poor households, putting a
particular burden on those that are short of labor and making it harder for children to attend school.
(v) Developing a Global Partnership and Biodiversity
Achieving development goals requires considerable resources and creative use of both existing and
new resources. Generating public resources and attracting private resources to finance development
and conservation are thus needed.

2.2.5. Biodiversity Hotspots:

Biodiversity hotspots are defined as regions “where exceptional concentrations of endemic species
are undergoing an exceptional loss of habitat”. The concept of biodiversity hotspots was developed
by the Norman Myers in 1988 when he identified that the tropical forest losing its plants species as
well as habitat.
IUCN prepares ‘Red Data Book’. There are 35 areas around the world which are qualified as
Biodiversity hotspots. These hotspots represent only 2.3% of the total Earth's land surface, yet
supports nearly 60 percent of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species.
These hotspots are important because Biodiversity underpins all life on Earth. Without species,
there would be no air to breathe, no food to eat, no water to drink. There would be no human society
at all.
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two criteria:
• It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics — which is to say, it must have a
high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words,
is irreplaceable.
• It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be
threatened.

IUCN Red List:

Founded in 1964, the IUCN Red List also known as the Red Data List evaluates the biological
species in the world which are at the risk of extinction. IUCN aims to focus on the conservation of
the world’s species to reduce species extinction. More than 77,300 species have been assessed on
the IUCN Red List.
The IUCN Red List can be divided into the following 9 categories:
• Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining
• Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized
population outside its historic range

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 2

• Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild

• Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild
• Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild
• Near threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered shortly
• Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category
• Data deficient (DD) – Not enough data to assess its risk of extinction
• Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria

2.2.6. Biodiversity Hotspots in India:

India is a country rich in biological diversity. It is situated in the Indo-malaya eco-zone and
comprises of 4 out of the 35 biodiversity hotspots in the world.
(i) The Himalayas
(ii) Indo-Burma region
(iii) The Western Ghats
(iv) Sundaland

(i) The Himalayas:

• This region comprises of Bhutan, Northeast India, and Southern, Central and Eastern
Nepal.
• These Himalayan Mountains are the highest in the world and abode to some of the highest
peaks of the world including Mount Everest and K2.
• Some of the major rivers in the world originate from the Himalayas. The Himalayas
comprise of more than 100 mountains beyond 7200 meters.
• There are almost 163 endangered species in this region including one-horned rhinoceros,
wild Asian water buffalo and as many as 45 mammals, 50 birds, 12 amphibians, 17 reptiles,
3 invertebrate and 36 plant species.
• One such endangered species found here is the relict dragonfly whose only other species is
found in Japan. Himalayan Newt is also present in this region.
• Coming to the fauna, there are 10,000 species of plants in the Himalayas a third of which
are endemic and cannot be located anywhere else in the world.

(ii) Indo-Burma region:

• This region consists of numerous countries including North-Eastern India (to the south of
the Brahmaputra River), Myanmar, and China's Yunnan provinces southern part, Lao

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
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People's Democratic Republic, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand. It is spread over a

distance of 2 million square kilometres.
• 1300 species of birds too can be spotted here. Freshwater turtle species found in the region
are however endemic. Almost 13,500 plant species can be spotted in the region half of
which are endemic and cannot be found in any other place in the world.
(iii) The Western Ghats:
• These hills are present along the western edge of peninsular India. Since they are situated
near the ocean, they are likely to receive a good amount of rainfall.
• Most of the deciduous, as well as rainforests, are present in this region. Around 77% of the
amphibians and 62% of the reptiles found here cannot be spotted elsewhere in the world.
• There are more than 6000 vascular plants here which belong to more than 2500 genus. 3000
plants out of these are endemic.
• Most of the spices found in the world such as black pepper and cardamom all are believed
to have originated in the Western Ghats. Most of the species are however present in the
Agasthyamalai Hills situated in extreme South.
• The region is also home to around 450 species of birds, 140 mammals, 260 reptiles and 175
amphibians.

(iv) Sundaland:
• This region lies in South-East Asia and includes Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei,
and Malaysia. The Nicobar Islands represent India.
• These islands were declared as the world biosphere reserve in 2013 by the United Nations.
• These islands have a rich terrestrial as well as marine ecosystem including mangroves,
seagrass beds, and coral reefs. Species such as dolphins, whales, turtles, crocodiles, fishes,
prawns, lobsters and seashells comprise the marine biodiversity.

2.2.7. Biodiversity in India – Flora, and Fauna

India is famous for its rich flora and fauna. India houses over 500 species of mammals, more than
200 species of birds, and 30,000 different species of insects. The Zoological Survey of India which
is headquartered in Kolkata is responsible for surveying the faunal resources of India.
India has a diverse climate, topology, and habitat is known to have the richest flora in the world
with over 18000 species of flowering plants. These plant species constitute 6-7% of the world’s
plant species. There are 8 main floristic regions in India- the Western and the Eastern Himalayas,
Indus and Ganges, Assam, the Deccan, Malabar, and the Andaman Islands which is home to 3000
Indian plant species. The forests in India cover ranges from the tropical rainforest including

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
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Andaman, Western Ghats, and northeast India to the coniferous forests of the Himalayas. The
deciduous forests can be found in the eastern, central, and southern parts of India.
2.2.8. Endemic and Endangered Species of India:
(i) Endemic species
Species are said to be endemic when they are exclusive to a single location and cannot be found
anywhere else on the planet. Kangaroos, for instance, are a native species that can only be found in
Australia; they are not found anywhere else in the globe.
It is possible for a species to become endemic to a certain region through a number of different
mechanisms. Because of the changes that have taken place in its natural habitat, a population that
was once widespread may have become extinct in one or more of its habitats. The shifts may have
been caused by an increase in the number of predators, human activity, a change in climate, or
some combination of these three variables.
(ii) Endangered species
Some species have been designated as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN). Endangered species are those that are in danger of extinction or are already extinct.
This is due to a variety of variables, both natural and man-made. Endangered species are doomed
to extinction sooner or later. To avoid this, the proper measures must be performed. An endangered
species is a species that was once native to a region but has had its population strength decreased
from 50% to 5%.
Endemic Species of India
The following is a list of the species that are unique to India and can only be found there:
a) The Asiatic Lion, Gir Forest
The Asiatic Lion, commonly known as the Indian Lion, is endemic to only the Gir Forest National
Park in Gujarat and the areas immediately around it.
b) Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley
The Dachigam National Park in the Kashmir Valley and the Chamba district in Himachal Pradesh
are home to the Hangul, another name for the Kashmir Stag.
c) The Lion-Tailed Macaque, Western Ghats
Only the Western Ghats of Southern India are known to be home to this one-of-a-kind primate
species, making it the world’s rarest, most endangered primate.
d) Purple Frog, Western Ghats
The only place on Earth where you can find the purple frog, also called the Pignose frog, is in the
rainforests of India’s western ghats. It burrows underground for most of its existence.

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e) Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake

This species can only be found in Manipur’s Keibul Lamjao National Park. This park is a marshy
wetland and it is situated in the southern portions of Loktak lake.
f) Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills
It is an endangered species of wild sheep that can only be found in the unique Nilgiri Hills of the
Western Ghats.
Other species that can only be found in India include the following:
• Pygmy Hog, Assam
• Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
• Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
• Malabar Civet, Western Ghats
• Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills
• Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh
• Indian Giant Squirrel
• Bonnet Macaque

Endangered Species of India

Species in India that are on the verge of extinction;
• Kolar Leaf-nosed Large bat-like rock rat
• Namdapha The Squirrel That Can Fly
• Nicobar Hangul, also known as the Chinese Pangolin and Jenkin’s Shrew
• Andaman White-toothed Shrew
• Sumatran Rhinoceros
• Javan Rhinoceros
• Pygmy Hog
• Malabar Civet

2.2.9. Human-Wildlife Conflicts:

Human-Wildlife Conflict refers to the negative interaction between humans and wildlife that result
in losses in terms of life, property or resources. Due to an expanding human population, it is almost
inevitable that humans will encroach into the natural habitats of the animal kingdom.
Factors leading to Human-Wildlife Conflict
The factors leading to Human-Wildlife Conflict are the result of humans coming in proximity to
natural habitats of wildlife. For instance, crops are raised by herbivores and livestock by carnivores,

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
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leading the farmers that depend on both to take extreme measures in preventing the loss of wildlife.
With a rapidly increasing human population and high biodiversity, interactions between people and
wild animals are becoming more and more prevalent.
Habitat disturbance is the destruction of the home of wild animals. Humans kill or chase wild
animals by digging, cutting, sealing by stones and smoking in their natural habitat. Other factors
include large scale habitat destruction through deforestation overgrazing by livestock and
expansion of human settlements and agriculture.
2.2.10. Threats to Biodiversity:
• Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution.
• During evolution, species have died out and have been replaced by others.
• The rate of loss of species in geologic past has been a slow process.
• The process of extinction has become particularly fast in the recent years of human
civilization.
• In this century, the human impact has been so severe that thousands of species and varieties
are becoming extinct annually.
• One of the estimates by the noted ecologist, E.O. Wilson puts the figure of extinction at
10,000 species per year or 27 per day.

Major reasons for loss of biodiversity in hotspots:

• Destruction of habitats
• Pollution and environmental degradation
• Poaching
• Climate Change

2.2.11. Conservation of Biodiversity:

“Biodiversity conservation refers to the protection, upliftment, and management of biodiversity in
order to derive sustainable benefits for present and future generations.”
Biodiversity conservation has three main objectives:
• To preserve the diversity of species
• Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem
• To maintain life-supporting systems and essential ecological processes

Biodiversity can be conserved in the following ways:

(i) In-situ Conservation

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(ii) Ex-situ Conservation

(i) In-situ Conservation:

In-situ conservation of biodiversity is the conservation of species within their natural habitat. In
this method, the natural ecosystem is maintained and protected.
Advantages of in-situ conservation:
• It is a cost-effective and convenient method of conserving biodiversity.
• A large number of living organisms can be conserved simultaneously.
• Since the organisms are in a natural ecosystem, they can evolve better and can easily adjust
to different environmental conditions.

Certain protected areas where in-situ conservation takes place include national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.
(a) National Parks
These are small reserves maintained by the government. Its boundaries are well demarcated and
human activities such as grazing, forestry, habitat and cultivation are prohibited.
Eg., Kanha National Park, and Bandipur National Park
(b) Wildlife Sanctuaries
These are the regions where only wild animals are found. Human activities such as timber
harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods and other forest products are allowed here as long as
they do not interfere with the conservation project. Also, tourists visit these places for recreation.
(c) Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere reserves are multi-purpose protected areas where the wildlife, traditional lifestyle of the
inhabitants and domesticated plants and animals are protected. Tourist and research activities are
permitted here.
(ii) Ex-situ Conservation:
Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered species
in artificial ecosystems such as zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. There is less
competition for food, water and space among the organisms.
Advantages of ex-situ conservation:
• The animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity.
• The species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild.
• Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered species.

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE