Environmental Science Module 3

MODULE 3
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND CONTROL

UNIT 3 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND CONTROL

Causes, adverse effects and control measures of pollution - Air pollution, Water pollution, Soil
pollution, Noise pollution, Thermal pollution, Nuclear pollution; Solid waste management –
Urban waste, industrial waste; Latest developments in pollution control; Hazards and disaster
management – Floods, Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Case studies.

3.1. Environmental Pollution

Environmental pollution is defined as “the contamination of the physical and biological
components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal environmental processes
are adversely affected.”
When there is an undesirable change in the surrounding that has harmful effects on plants and
animals, it leads to environmental pollution. A pollutant is a substance that causes pollution. We
can have pollutants in liquid, solid or gaseous forms. A substance becomes a pollutant when its
concentration is greater than the natural abundance and this increase in concentration is either due
to human activities or natural phenomena.
3.2. Types of Environmental pollution
Following are the various types of environmental pollution
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Soil pollution
• Noise pollution
• Thermal pollution
• Nuclear pollution

3.2.1. Air Pollution

Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination
of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically.
There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the
composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous composition has
resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

Types of Air Pollutants:

There are two types of air pollutants:
a) Primary pollutants
b) Secondary pollutants

a) Primary pollutants:
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide
emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.
b) Secondary pollutants:
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as
secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary
pollutant.
Causes of Air Pollution:
(i) Burning of Fossil fuels:
The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released
by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.
(ii) Automobiles:
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment.
These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.
(iii) Agricultural activities:
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate
it.
(iv) Factories and Industries:
Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds,
hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.
(v) Mining activities:
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of equipment.
The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the
health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.
(vi) Domestic sources:
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air.
The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not
only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

Effects of Air Pollution:

(i) Diseases:
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The
cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas are
more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect
effects of air pollution.
(ii) Global Warming:
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the
air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature
is known as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an increase in sea
levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.
(iii) Acid rain:
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in
the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which
damages human, animal and plant life.
(iv) Ozone layer depletion:
The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the
major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful
ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among individuals.
(v) Effect on Animals:
The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also compels the
animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also led to
the extinction of a large number of animal species.
Control Measures:
(i) Avoid using Vehicles:
People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public modes
of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also conserves
energy.
(ii) Energy Conservation:
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch
off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the individual
level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

(iii) Use of Clean Energy Resources:

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various
countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a cleaner
environment.
Other air pollution control measures include:
• By minimising and reducing the use of fire and fire products.

• Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can
be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if
• the reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be
substituted with other less polluting materials.

• Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol
and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These
are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.

• Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air,
most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of
vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.

• Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain
existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimised.

• Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have
process control equipment to control the pollution.

• A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.

• The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation. Plants
and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of
high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

3.2.2. Water Pollution

Water pollution can be defined as the contamination of water bodies. Water pollution is caused
when water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater and aquifers get contaminated with
industrial and agricultural effluents.
When water gets polluted, it adversely affects all life forms that directly or indirectly depend on
this source. The effects of water contamination can be felt for years to come.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

Sources of Water Pollution:

The key sources of water pollution in India are:
• Urbanization
• Deforestation
• Industrial effluents
• Social and Religious practices
• Use of Detergents and Fertilizers
• Agricultural run-offs- Use of insecticides and pesticides

One of the primary causes of water pollution is the contamination of water bodies by toxic
chemicals. The dumped plastic bottles, tins, water cans and other wastes pollute the water bodies.
These result in water pollution, which harms not just humans, but the whole ecosystem. Toxins
drained from these pollutants, travel up to the food chain and eventually affect humans. In most
cases, the outcome is destructive to only the local population and species, but it can have an impact
on a global scale too.
Nearly 6 billion kilograms of garbage is dumped every year in the oceans. Apart from industrial
effluents and untreated sewage, other forms of unwanted materials are dumped into various water
bodies. These can range from nuclear waste to oil spills – the latter of which can render vast areas
uninhabitable.
Effects of Water Pollution:
The effect of water pollution depends upon the type of pollutants and their concentration. Also, the
location of water bodies is an important factor to determine the levels of pollution.
• Water bodies in the vicinity of urban areas are extremely polluted.
• Water pollution drastically affects aquatic life. It affects their metabolism, and behaviour,
and causes illness and eventual death. Dioxin is a chemical that causes a lot of problems
from reproduction to uncontrolled cell growth or cancer. This chemical is bio-accumulated
in fish, chicken and meat. Chemicals such as this travel up the food chain before entering
the human body.
• The effect of water pollution can have a huge impact on the food chain. It disrupts the food
chain. Cadmium and lead are some toxic substances, these pollutants upon entering the
food chain through animals (fish when consumed by animals, humans) can continue to
disrupt at higher levels.
• Humans are affected by pollution and can contract diseases such as hepatitis through faecal
matter in water sources. Poor drinking water treatment and unfit water can always cause an
outbreak of infectious diseases such as cholera, etc.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

• The ecosystem can be critically affected, modified and de-structured because of water
pollution.

Control Measures of Water Pollution:

Water pollution, to a larger extent, can be controlled by a variety of methods. Rather than releasing
sewage waste into water bodies, it is better to treat them before discharge. Practicing this can reduce
the initial toxicity and the remaining substances can be degraded and rendered harmless by the
water body itself. If the secondary treatment of water has been carried out, then this can be reused
in sanitary systems and agricultural fields.
A very special plant, the Water Hyacinth can absorb dissolved toxic chemicals such as cadmium
and other such elements. Establishing these in regions prone to such kinds of pollutants will reduce
the adverse effects to a large extent.
Some chemical methods that help in the control of water pollution are precipitation, the ion
exchange process, reverse osmosis, and coagulation.
3.2.3. Soil Pollution
Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with anomalous concentrations of toxic substances.
It is a serious environmental concern since it harbours many health hazards.
Causes of Soil Pollution:
A variety of human activities can lead to the contamination of soil.
• The demolition of old buildings can involve the contamination of nearby soil with asbestos.
• Usage of lead-based paint during construction activities can also pollute the soil with
hazardous concentrations of lead.
• Spillage of petrol and diesel during transportation can contaminate soils with the
hydrocarbons found in petroleum.
• Activities associated with metal casting factories (foundries) often cause the dispersion of
metallic contaminants into the nearby soils.
• Underground mining activities can cause the contamination of land with heavy metals.
• Improper disposal of highly toxic industrial/chemical waste can severely pollute the soil.
For example, the storage of toxic wastes in landfills can result in the seepage of the waste
into the soil. This waste can go on to pollute groundwater as well.
• Chemical pesticides contain several hazardous substances. Excessive and inefficient use of
chemical pesticides can result in severe soil pollution.
• Sewage produced in urbanized areas can also contaminate soil if not disposed of correctly.
These wastes may also contain several carcinogenic substances.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

Effects of Soil Pollution:

(i) Effects on Human Beings:
Soil contaminants can exist in all three phases (solid, liquid, and gaseous). Therefore, these
contaminants can find their way into the human body via several channels such as direct contact
with the skin or through the inhalation of contaminated soil dust.
The short term effects of human exposure to polluted soil include
• Headaches, nausea, and vomiting
• Coughing, pain in the chest, and wheezing
• Irritation of the skin and the eyes
• Fatigue and weakness

A variety of long-term ailments have been linked to soil pollution. Some such diseases are listed
below.
• Exposure to high levels of lead can result in permanent damage to the nervous system.
Children are particularly vulnerable to lead
• Depression of the CNS (Central Nervous System)
• Damage to vital organs such as the kidney and the liver
• Higher risk of developing cancer

(ii) Effects on Plants and Animals:

Since soil pollution is often accompanied by a decrease in the availability of nutrients, plant life
ceases to thrive in such soils. Soils contaminated with inorganic aluminium can prove toxic to
plants. Also, this type of pollution often increases the salinity of the soil, making it inhospitable for
the growth of plant life.
Plants that are grown in polluted soil may accumulate high concentrations of soil pollutants through
a process known as bioaccumulation. When these plants are consumed by herbivores, all the
accumulated pollutants are passed up the food chain. This can result in the loss/extinction of many
desirable animal species. Also, these pollutants can eventually make their way to the top of the
food chain and manifest as diseases in human beings.
(iii) Effects on the Ecosystem:
Since the volatile contaminants in the soil can be carried away into the atmosphere by winds or can
seep into underground water reserves, soil pollution can be a direct contributor to air and water
pollution. It can also contribute to acid rain by releasing huge quantities of ammonia into the
atmosphere.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

Acidic soils are inhospitable to several microorganisms that improve soil texture and help in the
decomposition of organic matter. Crop yield is greatly affected by this form of pollution.
Control Measures of Soil Pollution:
Some important strategies followed for the decontamination of polluted soil are listed below.
• Excavation and subsequent transportation of polluted soils to remote, uninhabited
locations.
• Extraction of pollutants via thermal remediation – the temperature is raised in order to force
the contaminants into the vapour phase, after which they can be collected through vapour
extraction.
• Bioremediation or phytoremediation involves the use of microorganisms and plants for the
decontamination of soil.
• Mycoremediation involves the use of fungi for the accumulation of heavy metal
contaminants.

3.2.4. Noise Pollution

Noise is the unpleasant and undesirable sound which leads to discomfort in human beings. The
word noise is derived from the Latin word ‘Nausea’, which means sickness in which one feels the
need to vomit. The intensity of sound is measured in decibels (dB). The faintest sound that the
human ear can hear is 1 Db. Due to increasing noise around the civilizations, noise pollution has
become a matter of concern. Some of its major causes are vehicles, aircraft, industrial machines,
loudspeakers, crackers, etc. When used at high volume, some other appliances also contribute to
noise pollution, like television, transistor, radio, etc.
Causes and Sources of Noise Pollution:
(i) Industrialisation:
Industrialisation has led to an increase in noise pollution as the use of heavy machinery such as
generators, mills, huge exhaust fans are used, resulting in the production of unwanted noise.
(ii) Vehicles:
Increased number of vehicles on the roads is the second reason for noise pollution.
(iii) Events:
Weddings, public gatherings involve loudspeakers to play music resulting in the production of
unwanted noise in the neighbourhood.
(iv) Construction sites:
Mining, construction of buildings, etc. add to the noise pollution.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

Effects of Noise Pollution on Human Health

(i) Hypertension:
It is a direct result of noise pollution which is caused due to elevated blood levels for a longer
duration.
(ii) Hearing loss:
Constant exposure of human ears to loud noise that are beyond the range of sound that human ears
can withstand damages the eardrums, resulting in loss of hearing.
(iii) Sleeping disorders:
Lack of sleep might result in fatigue and low energy level throughout the day affecting everyday
activities. Noise pollution hampers the sleep cycles leading to irritation and an uncomfortable state
of mind.
(iv) Cardiovascular issues:
Heart-related problems such as blood pressure level, stress and cardiovascular diseases might come
up in a normal person and a person suffering from any of these diseases might feel a sudden shoot
up in the level.
Prevention of Noise Pollution
• Honking in public places like teaching institutes, hospitals, etc. should be banned.
• In commercial, hospital, and industrial buildings, adequate soundproof systems should be
installed.
• Musical instruments’ sound should be controlled to desirable limits.
• Dense tree cover is useful in noise pollution prevention.
• Explosives should not be used in forest, mountainous and mining areas.

3.2.5. Thermal Pollution:

Thermal pollution is defined as a sudden increase or decrease in temperature of a natural body of
water, which may be ocean, lake, river or pond by human influence. This normally occurs when a
plant or facility takes in water from a natural resource and puts it back with an altered temperature.
Usually, these facilities use it as a cooling method for their machinery or to help better produce
their products.
Plants that produce different products or wastewater facilities are often the culprits of this massive
exodus of thermal pollution. In order to properly control and maintain thermal pollution, humans
and governments have been taking many steps to effectively manage how plants are able to use the
water. However, the effects are still lasting today.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

Causes of Thermal Pollution:

(i) Water as a Cooling Agent in Power, Manufacturing and Industrial Plants:
Production and Manufacturing plants are the biggest sources of thermal pollution. These plants
draw water from a nearby source to keep machines cool and then release back to the source with
higher temperatures. When heated water returns to the river or ocean, the water temperature rises
sharply. When oxygen levels are altered in the water, this can also degrade the quality and longevity
of life in wildlife that lives underwater. This process can also wipe away streamside vegetation,
which constantly depends on constant levels of oxygen and temperature.
By altering these natural environments, industries are essentially helping decrease the quality of
life for these marine-based life forms, which can ultimately destroy habitats if they are not
controlled and careful about their practices.
(ii) Soil Erosion:
Soil erosion is another major factor that causes thermal pollution. Consistent soil erosion causes
water bodies to rise, making them more exposed to sunlight. The high temperature could prove
fatal for aquatic biomes as it may give rise to anaerobic conditions.
(iii) Deforestation:
Trees and plants prevent sunlight from falling directly on lakes, ponds or rivers. When deforestation
takes place, these water bodies are directly exposed to sunlight, thus absorbing more heat and
raising its temperature. Deforestation is also the main cause of the higher concentrations of
greenhouse gases, i.e. global warming in the atmosphere.
(iv) Runoff from Paved Surfaces:
Urban runoff discharged to surface waters from paved surfaces like roads and parking lots can
make the water warmer. During summer seasons, the pavement gets quite hot, which creates warm
runoffs that get into the sewer systems and water bodies.
(v) Natural Causes:
Natural causes like volcanoes, geothermal vents and hot springs under the oceans and seas can
trigger warm lava to raise the temperature of water bodies. Lightening can also introduce a massive
amount of heat into the oceans. This means that the overall temperature of the water source will
rise, having significant impacts on the environment.
(vi) Retention Ponds:
Retention ponds can be another source of thermal shock because the water bodies that are relatively
small and shallow can absorb quite a bit of heat energy from the sun. When that water is pumped
directly into a river, lake, or bay, it causes a significant temperature increase. It is similar to pouring
a hot pitcher of water into a bathtub full of water that causes the water to jump a few degrees
Fahrenheit.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

(vii) Domestic Sewage:

Domestic sewage is often discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams without treating the waste.
The temperature of municipal water sewage is normally high than receiving water. With the
increase in temperature of the receiving water, the dissolved oxygen (DO) decreases, and the
demand for oxygen increases, causing anaerobic conditions.
Effects of Thermal Pollution
(i) Decrease in DO (Dissolved Oxygen) Levels:
The warm temperature reduces the levels of DO (Dissolved Oxygen) in water. The warm water
holds relatively less oxygen than cold water. The decrease in DO can create suffocation for plants
and animals such as fish, amphibians and copepods, which may give rise to anaerobic conditions.
Warmer water allows algae to flourish on the surface of the water, and over the long term, growing
algae can decrease oxygen levels in the water.
(ii) Increase in Toxins:
With the constant flow of high-temperature discharge from industries, there is a huge increase in
toxins that are being regurgitated into the natural body of water. These toxins may contain
chemicals or radiation that may have a harsh impact on the local ecology and make them susceptible
to various diseases.
(iii) Loss of Biodiversity:
A dent in the biological activity in the water may cause a significant loss of biodiversity. Changes
in the environment may cause certain species of organisms to shift their base to some other place
while there could be a significant number of species that may shift in because of warmer waters.
Organisms that can adapt easily may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the
warmer temperatures.
(iv) Ecological Impact:
A sudden thermal shock can result in mass killings of fish, insects, plants or amphibians. Hotter
water may prove favorable for some species, while it could be lethal for other species. Small water
temperature increases the level of activity, while higher temperature decreases the level of activity.
Many aquatic species are sensitive to small temperature changes such as one degree Celsius that
can cause significant changes in organism metabolism and other adverse cellular biology effects.
(v) Affects Reproductive Systems:
A significant halt in the reproduction of marine wildlife (although this may be true, reproduction
can still occur between fish – but the likelihood of defects in newborns is significantly higher) can
happen due to increasing temperatures as reproduction can happen within a certain range of
temperature. Excessive temperature can cause the release of immature eggs or can prevent the
normal development of certain eggs.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

(vi) Increases Metabolic Rate:

Thermal pollution increases the metabolic rate of organisms as increasing enzyme activity occurs
that causes organisms to consume more food than what is normally required if their environment
were not changed. It disrupts the stability of the food chain and alters the balance of species
composition.
(vii) Migration:
The warm water can also cause particular species of organisms to migrate to a suitable environment
that would cater to its requirements for survival. This can result in a loss for those species that
depend on them for their daily food as their food chain is interrupted.
Solutions to Thermal Pollution:
The solutions to thermal discharge into water bodies are as follows:
(i) Cooling Ponds:
Cooling ponds or reservoirs are the simplest methods of controlling thermal discharges. In cooling
ponds, heated effluents on the surface of water maximize the dissipation of heat to the atmosphere
and minimize the area and volume of water. This is the simplest and cheapest method that cools
the water to a considerably low temperature. However, the method alone is less desirable as well
as inefficient in terms of air-water contact.
(ii) Cooling Towers:
After using water from water sources for cooling purposes, it is subsequently returned to the water
body after passing through the condenser, which is termed as the cooling process. Therefore cooling
towers are designed to control the temperature of water to make the cooling process more effective.
Cooling towers are mainly used to dissipate the recovered waste heat to eliminate the problems of
thermal pollution.
(iii) Artificial Lake:
Artificial lakes are man-made water bodies that offer a possible alternative. The heated effluents
may be discharged into the lake at one end, and the water may be withdrawn from the other end for
cooling purposes. The heat is eventually dissipated through evaporation.
(iv) Water Recycling:
Industrially treated water can be recycled for domestic use or industrial heating that the problem of
thermal pollution can be mitigated.
3.2.6. Nuclear Pollution:
Radioactive pollution occurs when there is a presence or depositions of radioactive materials in the
atmosphere or environment, especially where their presence is accidental and when it presents an
environmental threat due to radioactive decay. The destruction caused by the radioactive materials

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

is because of the emissions of hazardous ionizing radiation (radioactive decay) like beta or alpha
particles, gamma rays or neurons in the environment where they exist.
Since the substances are characterized by radiation – because there is a lot of instability of the
particles present in the radioactive materials, it can seriously affect, alter and even destroy plant,
animal, and human life. The extent of damage or danger posed to the environment depends upon
the radioactive material concentration, the energy emitted by the radiation, proximity of the
radioactive materials to those exposed, and the radiation type. Herein is a detailed explanation of
the causes, effects, and solutions of radioactive pollution.
Causes of Nuclear Pollution:
(i) Nuclear Accidents from Nuclear Energy Generation Plants:
In the postmodern world, various forms of energy are being discovered. Among them is nuclear
energy, which is touted to be the most potent source of energy due to its high latent power.
(ii) The Use of Nuclear Weapons as Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD):
The use of nuclear missiles and atomic bombs, a form of nuclear energy, in the Second World War
explains not only the cause but also the damaging nature of radioactive pollution or contamination.
The effects of those two strikes in Hiroshima and Nagasaki that prompted the end of the war in
1945 have been seen to date with children born with complications such as mental retardation as
well as conditions like autism and other disorders. The number of cancer cases present in the two
towns is more than those of the rest of Japan.
(iii) Use of Radioisotopes:
Radioisotopes are used to make detectors and in other industrial activities. Isotopes such as uranium
have high concentrations of radiation in them. On the other hand, common Isotopes such as carbon-
containing radioactive material are easily found in waterways through sewage lines.
Since most of the raw sewage is untreated before release, once released, the isotope combines with
other compounds and elements present in water. This is the same water that people fetch for
domestic use. Moreover, fishes use the same water to survive. Consumption of these fishes and
from contaminated water sources means the potential intake of radiation.
(iv) Mining:
Mining mostly involves the excavation of the mineral ores, which are then broken into smaller,
manageable pieces. Radium and Uranium, for instance, are naturally occurring in the environment
and are equally radioactive. Hence, mining increases the natural geological processes by moving
these materials from underneath the earth to the surface. Other minerals with a hint of radiation are
thorium, plutonium, radon, potassium, carbon and phosphorus.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

(v) Spillage of Radioactive Chemicals:

There have been instances of spillages over oceans when ships hit glaciers or coral reefs and end
up releasing chemicals on waterways and in the atmosphere. The majority of these chemicals,
including petroleum products, have a significant level of radiation, which can be detrimental to the
environment.
(vi) Cosmic Rays and Other Natural Sources:
These come from the outer space to our planet with intense radiation as their nature, therefore,
causing radioactive pollution. Gamma rays, for example, are said to have the highest level of
radiation and yet, depending on their intensity, some are not visible to the human eye. The quantity
with which the rays hit the earth depends on the altitude of the earth and the geographical location.
(vii) Nuclear Waste Handling and Disposal:
The radioactive wastes are of three categories- high level, low level and transuranic. They mainly
comprise of the disposal from nuclear weapons, the cleaning materials from nuclear plants, military
installations, emitted from plutonium processing and other radioisotopes from hospitals and
laboratories.
Effects of Radioactive Pollution:
(i) Genetic Mutations:
Radiation has adverse effects when it comes to genetics. It leads to damage to DNA strands leading
to the genetic break up over time. The degree of genetic mutation leading to changes in DNA
composition varies due to the level of radiation one has been exposed to and the kind of exposure.
In the event that a human or an animal is exposed to too much radiation from the atmosphere, the
food consumed, and even water used then, the chances are that their bodies have already absorbed
the radiation. Once in the body, it remains active because energy cannot be destroyed.
The resulting mutation makes one highly susceptible to cancer. For pregnant women, kids born
have adverse defects caused by genetic mutations like low weight during birth. Effects such as
disfigured births and impairment like blindness in children have also been reported. Infertility has
also been mentioned as an effect of radiation.
(ii) Diseases:
Cancer is the most dominant radiation-related disease. It has developed over the years and poses a
great risk in global health. Others include leukemia, anemia, hemorrhage, a reduction in the life
span leading to premature aging and premature deaths as well as others such as cardiovascular
complications. Leukemia, for instance, is caused by radiation in the bone marrow.
(iii) Soil Infertility:
Exposure of radiation to the atmosphere means it is present even in soils. Radioactive substances
in the soil react together with the various nutrients leading to the destruction of those nutrients, thus

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Environmental Science Module 3

rendering the soil infertile and highly toxic. Such soil leads to the harvest of crops that are riddled
with radiation and thus, unfit for consumption by both humans and animals.
Plants that grow from such soil are also genetically modified. Since these are at the base of the food
chain, the herbivores consume them and retain the radiation levels. The carnivores such as lions,
vultures end up consuming them and increasing their levels of radiation – explained through the
concept of Biomagnification.
(iv) Cell Destruction:
Radioactive pollution has diverse effects, such as the alteration of cells. The bodies of living
organisms are unique as within it, there are millions of cells in one single body, where each has its
own purpose to fulfill. Radiation distorts the cells present, leading to permanent damage of the
various organs and organ systems. In the face of too much radiation, permanent illnesses and death
are inevitable.
(v) Burns:
Radiation is not easy to feel, but it is easy to realize that you have been affected by it. The immediate
presence of burns, red lesions and sores is evidence. To make it worse, this can lead to skin cancer.
(vi) Effects on Wildlife:
The animals at different levels suffer differently. The higher-level organisms get more affected than
insects and flies. Herbivores, such as cattle, when grazing the contaminated land, the deposited Ce-
13 and I-131 get accumulated on the animal tissues in a large amount. These radionuclides enter
their metabolic cycles and affect their DNAs (mentioned above; ionizing). This ends up having a
mutated animal generation with a higher risk of health issues by just a small amount of
radionuclides.
(vii) Effects on Plants:
The plants are also exposed to radiation, and the damage is mostly done due to the increased
Ultraviolet waves. Different plants get affected differently. The stomata stop to evaporate during
the increase of radiation. When the radiation hits the chromosomes, the reproduction gets
hampered. It results in altered shapes, sizes and health in plants. Exposure in high amounts destroys
the affected plants. When we eat these plants, we ingest nuclides.
(viii) Effects on Marine life:
The power plants, which are the sources of nuclear energy and chemical processing, have been
releasing radioisotopes into the water for decades. Cesium, Radon, Crypton, Ruthenium, Zinc and
Copper are few of them. Though the waste is released in a “permissible” amount, it does not mean
safe.

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These radionuclides can be detected in the soft tissues or on the bones of the fishes. The sea-weed
used in bread was said to have radioisotope of ruthenium. The shells of all shelled fishes and the
tissues of fishes are contaminated with radionuclides.
Solutions to Radioactive Pollution:
(i) Proper Method of Disposing of Radioactive Waste:
Radioactive waste still has some level of radiation. Accordingly, it cannot be disposed of in the
same way as normal waste. It cannot be incinerated or buried. Since there is a likelihood of seepage,
this waste should be stored in heavy and thick concrete containers.
Another option is to dilute the radiation since storage may not be possible. Since there are no easy
ways of disposing of radioactive material, professional assistance should always be sought.
(ii) Proper Labeling:
It is necessary for any material with radioactive content to be labeled, and the necessary precautions
advised on the content of the label. The reason for this is because radiation can enter the body by a
mere touch of radioactive material. Containers with such elements should be well labeled in order
to make one use protective gear when handling them.
(iii) Banning of Nuclear Tests:
It has already been proven that nuclear power has a lot of latent power that is very destructive.
Nevertheless, the tests done to perfect the energy contribute greatly to the overall presence of
radioactive substances. Moreover, these tests, though done in the deserts, end up escaping from one
ecosystem to another, eventually affecting the lives of many people.
(iv) Alternative Energy Sources:
The evolution and use of nuclear power was not a bad thing initially. However, considering the
damage and threats it has on the environment, it is high time for its use to be discontinued and for
the world to perhaps focus on alternative and environmentally friendly energy sources – like
renewable sources of energy namely solar, hydro-electric and wind power.
The use of radioactivity to generate energy in nuclear power plants, for example, leads to the
production of more radiation to the atmosphere considering the waste released from the various
processes and combustion.
(v) Proper Storage:
It is mandatory for containers carrying radioactive material to be stored properly. For starters, such
substances should be stored in radiation proof containers to ensure no seeping or leakage during
handling. Proper storage means no harm and can minimize cases of accidental leakage.
(vi) Reusing:
Since it is not easy to store or dispose the waste, it can be recycled and used for other purposes like
in another reactor as fuel thereby protecting the environment.

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
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3.3. Solid Waste Management:

The term solid waste management mainly refers to the complete process of collecting, treating and
disposing of solid wastes.
In the waste management process, the wastes are collected from different sources and are disposed
of. This process includes collection, transportation, treatment, analysis and disposal of waste. It
needs to be monitored so that strict regulations and guidelines are followed.
Sources of Waste:
Sources of waste can be broadly classified into four types: Industrial, Commercial, Domestic, and
Agricultural.
(i) Industrial Waste:
These are the wastes created in factories and industries. Most industries dump their wastes in rivers
and seas which cause a lot of pollution.
Example: plastic, glass, etc.
(ii) Commercial Waste:
Commercial wastes are produced in schools, colleges, shops, and offices.
Example: plastic, paper, etc.
(iii) Domestic Waste:
The different household wastes which are collected during household activities like cooking,
cleaning, etc. are known as domestic wastes.
Example: leaves, vegetable peels, excreta, etc.
(iv) Agricultural Waste:
Various wastes produced in the agricultural field are known as agricultural wastes.
Example: cattle waste, weed, husk, etc.
Types of Waste:
Commonly waste is classified into two types: Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable waste. These
two kinds of wastes are explained below:
(i) Biodegradable Waste:
These are the wastes that come from our kitchen and it includes food remains, garden waste, etc.
Biodegradable waste is also known as moist waste. This can be composted to obtain manure.
Biodegradable wastes decompose themselves over a period of time depending on the material.
(ii) Non-biodegradable Waste:
These are the wastes which include old newspapers, broken glass pieces, plastics, etc. Non-
biodegradable waste is known as dry waste. Dry wastes can be recycled and can be reused. Non-
biodegradable wastes do not decompose by themselves and hence are major pollutants.
Disposal of Waste:

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
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The process of waste handling and disposal varies in different countries. In India, the processes
differ according to the source of solid waste. They can be classified as:
• Municipal Solid Waste
• Hazardous Solid Waste

Municipal solid waste can further be divided into biodegradable, recyclable and hazardous
domestic wastes. The biodegradable waste includes rotten food, vegetable peel and mostly wet
kitchen waste. Recyclable waste includes plastic and hazardous wastes include, bulb, batteries, etc.
The industry generated waste from chemical factories, medical waste from hospitals are considered
as Hazardous Solid Waste and they need special settings to dispose of them.
In any region, solid waste management is very important for the safe disposal of wastes and to
reduce environmental pollution and avoid any health hazards that it may cause.
Landfills are the most common method of disposing of solid wastes. Modern-day landfills are
designed by taking care of various environmental factors and types of wastes, so as to minimise
pollution and health risks.
Effects of Poor Solid Waste Management:
• Due to improper disposal of solid waste particularly by waste management organizations,
the collected wastes gets heap up and become a problem for both the environment and also
for the public.
• By dumping of huge garbage, drives biodegradable materials to decay and decompose
under abnormal, uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions. After a few days of
decomposition, it becomes a breeding ground for different types of disease-causing insects
as well as infectious organisms. A foul smell is produced and it also spoils the aesthetic
value of the area.
• The solid wastes collected from different industries include toxic metals, chemicals, and
other hazardous wastes. When these wastes are released into the environment, they can
produce biological and physicochemical problems to the environment, the chemicals may
drain into the soil and pollute the groundwater and also alter the productivity of the soils in
that particular area.
• In rare cases, the hazardous wastes may get mixed up with the ordinary garbage and other
combustible wastes causing the disposal process even harder and risky.
• By burning the paper and other scraps along with the hazardous wastes, dioxins and
poisonous gasses are produced and released into the air which results in causing various
diseases including chronic disease, skin infections, cancer, etc.

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
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Discarding Wastes:
(i) Sanitary Landfill:
In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or
plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually
several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. Methane produced by anaerobic decomposition is
collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat.
(ii) Composting:
In composting, decomposition of biodegradable municipal waste is done in an oxygen rich medium.
A good quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil
conditions and fertility.
(iii) Incineration:
Incinerators are burning plants capable of burning a large amount of materials at high temperature.
The initial cost is very high.
3.4. Hazard and Disaster Management:
3.4.1. Disaster:
A disaster is defined as a disruption on a massive scale, either natural or man-made, occurring in
short or long periods. Disasters can lead to human, material, economic or environmental hardships,
which can be beyond the bearable capacity of the affected society. As per statistics, India as a whole
is vulnerable to 30 different types of disasters that will affect the economic, social, and human
development potential to such an extent that it will have long-term effects on productivity and
macro-economic performance.
Disasters can be classified into the following categories:
• Water and Climate Disaster: Flood, hail storms, cloudburst, cyclones, heat waves, cold
waves, droughts, hurricanes. (Read about Cyclone Disaster Management separately at the
linked article.)
• Geological Disaster: Landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes
• Biological Disaster: Viral epidemics, pest attacks, cattle epidemic, and locust plagues
• Industrial Disaster: Chemical and industrial accidents, mine shaft fires, oil spills,
• Nuclear Disasters: Nuclear core meltdowns, radiation poisoning
• Man-made disasters: Urban and forest fires, oil spill, the collapse of huge building
structures

3.4.2. Disaster Management:

The Disaster Management Act of 2005 defines Disaster Management as an integrated process of
planning, organizing, coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary for-

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Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
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• Prevention of threat of any disaster

• Reduction of risk of any disaster or its consequences
• Readiness to deal with any disaster
• Promptness in dealing with a disaster
• Assessing the severity of the effects of any disaster
• Rescue and relief
• Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
3.4.3. Agencies involved in Disaster Management:
• National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):- The National Disaster Management
Authority, or the NDMA, is an apex body for disaster management, headed by the Prime
Minister of India. It is responsible for the supervision, direction, and control of the National
Disaster Response Force (NDRF).
• National Executive Committee (NEC):- The NEC is composed of high profile ministerial
members from the government of India that include the Union Home Secretary as
Chairperson, and the Secretaries to the Government of India (GoI)like
Ministries/Departments of Agriculture, Atomic Energy, Defence, Drinking Water Supply,
Environment and Forests, etc. The NEC prepares the National Plan for Disaster
Management as per the National Policy on Disaster Management.
• State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA):- The Chief Minister of the respective state
is the head of the [Link] State Government has a State Executive Committee (SEC)
which assists the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) on Disaster Management.
• District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA):- The DDMA is headed by the District
Collector, Deputy Commissioner or District Magistrate depending on the situation, with
the elected representatives of the local authority as the Co-Chairperson. The DDMA
ensures that the guidelines framed by the NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all the
departments of the State Government at the District level and the local authorities in the
District.
• Local Authorities:- Local authorities would include Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI),
Municipalities, District and Cantonment 11 Institutional and Legal Arrangements Boards,
and Town Planning Authorities which control and manage civic services.

3.4.4. Disaster Prevention and Mitigation:

Proper planning and mitigation measures can play a leading role in risk-prone areas to minimize
the worst effects of hazards such as earthquakes, floods, and cyclones. These are the key areas
which should be addressed to achieve this objective:

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• Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Mapping: Mapping and vulnerability analysis in a

multi-risk structure will be conducted utilizing Geographic Information System (GIS)
based databases like the National Database for Emergency Management (NDEM) and
National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI).
• Increasing Trend of Disasters in Urban Areas:- Steps to prevent unplanned urbanization
must be undertaken, with the plan of action formulated being given the highest priority.
State Governments/UTs concerned on the other hand focus on urban drainage systems with
special attention on non-obstruction of natural drainage systems.
• Critical Infrastructure:- Critical infrastructure like roads, dams, bridges, irrigation canals,
bridges, power stations, railway lines, delta water distribution networks, ports and river,
and coastal embankments should be continuously checked for safety standards concerning
worldwide safety benchmarks and fortified if the current measures prove to be inadequate.
• Environmentally Sustainable Development:– Environmental considerations and
developmental efforts, should be handled simultaneously for ensuring sustainability.
• Climate Change Adaptation:-. The challenges of the increase in the frequency and intensity
of natural disasters like cyclones, floods, and droughts should be tackled in a sustained and
effective manner with the promotion of strategies for climate change adaptation and
disaster risk reduction.

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Dr. A. Suresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE
Mr. M. S. Yuvaraj, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CE