Chapter

4
Stack and Queue
There are certain situations in computer science that one wants to restrict
insertions and deletions so that they can take place only at the beginning
or the end of the list, not in the middle. Two of such data structures that
are useful are:

 Stack.
 Queue.
Linear lists and arrays allow one to insert and delete elements at any
place in the list i.e., at the beginning, at the end or in the middle.

4.1. STACK:

A stack is a list of elements in which an element may be inserted or deleted only at one
end, called the top of the stack. Stacks are sometimes known as LIFO (last in, first out)
lists.

As the items can be added or removed only from the top i.e. the last item to be added
to a stack is the first item to be removed.

The two basic operations associated with stacks are:

 Push: is the term used to insert an element into a stack.

 Pop: is the term used to delete an element from a stack.

“Push” is the term used to insert an element into a stack. “Pop” is the term used to delete
an element from the stack.

All insertions and deletions take place at the same end, so the last element added to the
stack will be the first element removed from the stack. When a stack is created, the stack
base remains fixed while the stack top changes as elements are added and removed. The
most accessible element is the top and the least accessible element is the bottom of the
stack.

4.1.1. Representation of Stack:

Let us consider a stack with 6 elements capacity. This is called as the size of the stack.
The number of elements to be added should not exceed the maximum size of the stack.
If we attempt to add new element beyond the maximum size, we will encounter a stack
overflow condition. Similarly, you cannot remove elements beyond the base of the stack.
If such is the case, we will reach a stack underflow condition.

When an element is added to a stack, the operation is performed by push(). Figure 4.1
shows the creation of a stack and addition of elements using push().
 33

22 22

11 11 11

Figure 4.1. Push operations on stack

When an element is taken off from the stack, the operation is performed by pop(). Figure
4.2 shows a stack initially with three elements and shows the deletion of elements using
pop().

4 4 4 4

TOP 3 3 3 3

33 2 2 2 2
TOP
22 22
1 1 TOP 1 1
11 11 11 TOP
0 0 0 0
Initial POP POP POP
Stack
Empty
Stack
Figure 4.2. Pop operations on stack

4.1.2. Source code for stack operations, using array:

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <stdlib.h>
# define MAX 6
int stack[MAX];
int top = 0;
int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n … Stack operations using ARRAY... ");
printf("\n -----------********** ------------ \n");
printf("\n 1. Push ");
printf("\n 2. Pop ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter your choice: ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}
void display()
{
int i;
if(top == 0)
{
printf("\n\nStack empty..");
 return;
}
else
{
printf("\n\nElements in stack:");
for(i = 0; i < top; i++)
printf("\t%d", stack[i]);
}
}

void pop()
{
if(top == 0)
{
printf("\n\nStack Underflow..");
return;
}
else
printf("\n\npopped element is: %d ", stack[--top]);
}

void push()
{
int data;
if(top == MAX)
{
printf("\n\nStack Overflow..");
return;
}
else
{
printf("\n\nEnter data: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
stack[top] = data;
top = top + 1;
printf("\n\nData Pushed into the stack");
}
}

void main()
{
int ch;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
push();
break;
case 2:
pop();
break;
case 3:
display();
break;

case 4:
exit(0);
}

getch();
 } while(1);
}
4.1.3. Linked List Implementation of Stack:

We can represent a stack as a linked list. In a stack push and pop operations are
performed at one end called top. We can perform similar operations at one end of list
using top pointer. The linked stack looks as shown in figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3. Linked stack

representation

4.1.4. Source code for stack operations, using linked list:

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <stdlib.h>

struct stack
{
int data;
struct stack *next;
};

void push();
void pop();
void display();
typedef struct stack node;
node *start=NULL;
node *top = NULL;

node* getnode()
{
node *temp;
temp=(node *) malloc( sizeof(node)) ;
printf("\n Enter data ");
scanf("%d", &temp -> data);
temp -> next = NULL;
return temp;
}
void push(node *newnode)
{
node *temp;
if( newnode == NULL )
{
printf("\n Stack Overflow..");
return;
}
 if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
top = newnode;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while( temp -> next != NULL)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;
top = newnode;
}

printf("\n\n\t Data pushed into stack");

}
void pop()
{
node *temp;
if(top == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t Stack underflow");
return;
}
temp = start;
if( start -> next == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t Popped element is %d ", top -> data);
start = NULL;
free(top);
top = NULL;
}
else
{
while(temp -> next != top)
{
temp = temp -> next;
}
temp -> next = NULL;
printf("\n\n\t Popped element is %d ", top -> data);
free(top);
top = temp;
}
}
void display()
{
node *temp;
if(top == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t\t Stack is empty ");
}
else
{
temp = start;
printf("\n\n\n\t\t Elements in the stack: \n");
printf("%5d ", temp -> data);
while(temp != top)
{
temp = temp -> next;
printf("%5d ", temp -> data);
}
}
}
 char menu()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n \tStack operations using pointers.. ");
printf("\n -----------********** ------------ \n");
printf("\n 1. Push ");
printf("\n 2. Pop ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter your choice: ");
ch = getche();
return ch;
}

void main()
{
char ch;
node *newnode;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case '1' :
newnode = getnode();
push(newnode);
break;
case '2' :
pop();
break;
case '3' :
display();
break;
case '4':
return;
}
getch();
} while( ch != '4' );
}

4.2. Algebraic Expressions:

An algebraic expression is a legal combination of operators and operands. Operand is the

quantity on which a mathematical operation is performed. Operand may be a variable
like x, y, z or a constant like 5, 4, 6 etc. Operator is a symbol which signifies a
mathematical or logical operation between the operands. Examples of familiar operators
include +, -, *, /, ^ etc.

An algebraic expression can be represented using three different notations. They are
infix, postfix and prefix notations:

Infix: It is the form of an arithmetic expression in which we fix (place) the

arithmetic operator in between the two operands.

Example: (A + B) * (C - D)

Prefix: It is the form of an arithmetic notation in which we fix (place) the arithmetic
operator before (pre) its two operands. The prefix notation is called as
 polish notation (due to the polish mathematician Jan Lukasiewicz in the
year 1920).

Example: * + A B – C D

Postfix: It is the form of an arithmetic expression in which we fix (place) the arithmetic
operator after (post) its two operands. The postfix notation is called as suffix
notation and is also referred to reverse polish notation.

Example: A B + C D - *

The three important features of postfix expression are:

1. The operands maintain the same order as in the equivalent infix expression.

2. The parentheses are not needed to designate the expression un-

ambiguously.

3. While evaluating the postfix expression the priority of the operators is no

longer relevant.

We consider five binary operations: +, -, *, / and $ or  (exponentiation). For these

binary operations, the following in the order of precedence (highest to lowest):

OPERATOR PRECEDENCE VALUE

Exponentiation ($ or  or ^) Highest 3

*, / Next highest 2

+, - Lowest 1

4.3. Converting expressions using Stack:

Let us convert the expressions from one type to another. These can be done as follows:

1. Infix to postfix
2. Infix to prefix
3. Postfix to infix
4. Postfix to prefix
5. Prefix to infix
6. Prefix to postfix

4.3.1. Conversion from infix to postfix:

Procedure to convert from infix expression to postfix expression is as follows:

1. Scan the infix expression from left to right.

2. a) If the scanned symbol is left parenthesis, push it onto the stack.

b) If the scanned symbol is an operand, then place directly in the postfix

expression (output).
 c) If the symbol scanned is a right parenthesis, then go on popping all the
items from the stack and place them in the postfix expression till we
get the matching left parenthesis.

d) If the scanned symbol is an operator, then go on removing all the

operators from the stack and place them in the postfix expression, if
and only if the precedence of the operator which is on the top of the
stack is greater than (or greater than or equal) to the precedence of
the scanned operator and push the scanned operator onto the stack
otherwise, push the scanned operator onto the stack.

Example 1:

Convert ((A – (B + C)) * D)  (E + F) infix expression to postfix form:

SYMBOL POSTFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

( (
( ((
A A ((
- A ((-
( A ((-(
B AB ((-(
+ AB ((-(+
C ABC ((-(+
) ABC+ ((-
) ABC+- (
* ABC+- (*
D ABC+-D (*
) ABC+-D*
 ABC+-D* 
( ABC+-D* (
E ABC+-D*E (
+ ABC+-D*E (+
F ABC+-D*EF (+
) ABC+-D*EF+ 
End of The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols
string A B C + - D * E F +  from the stack until it is empty.

Example 2:

Convert a + b * c + (d * e + f) * g the infix expression into postfix form.

SYMBOL POSTFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

a a

+ a +

b ab +
 * ab +*

c abc +*

+ abc*+ +

( abc*+ +(

d abc*+d +(

* abc*+d +(*

e abc*+de +(*

+ abc*+de* +(+

f abc*+de*f +(+

) abc*+de*f+ +

* abc*+de*f+ +*

g abc*+de*f+g +*
End of The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols
abc*+de*f+g*+
string from the stack until it is empty.

Example 3:

Convert the following infix expression A + B * C – D / E * H into its equivalent postfix

expression.

SYMBOL POSTFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

A A
+ A +
B AB +
* AB +*
C ABC +*
- ABC*+ -
D ABC*+D -
/ ABC*+D -/
E ABC*+DE -/
* ABC*+DE/ -*
H ABC*+DE/H -*
End of The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols from
string ABC*+DE/H*- the stack until it is empty.

Example 4:

Convert the following infix expression A + (B * C – (D / E  F) * G) * H into its

equivalent postfix expression.

SYMBOL POSTFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

A A
+ A +
 ( A +(
B AB +(
* AB +(*
C ABC +(*
- ABC* +(-
( ABC* +(-(
D ABC*D +(-(
/ ABC*D +(-(/
E ABC*DE +(-(/
 ABC*DE + ( - ( / 
F ABC*DEF + ( - ( / 
) ABC *DEF/ +(-
* ABC *DEF/ +(-*
G ABC *DEF/G +(-*
) ABC *DEF/G*- +
* ABC *DEF/G*- +*
H ABC *DEF/G*-H +*
End of The input is now empty. Pop the output
ABC *DEF/G*-H *+
string symbols from the stack until it is empty.

4.3.2. Program to convert an infix to postfix expression:

# include <string.h>

char postfix[50];
char infix[50];
char opstack[50]; /* operator stack */
int i, j, top = 0;

int lesspriority(char op, char op_at_stack)

{
int k;
int pv1; /* priority value of op */
int pv2; /* priority value of op_at_stack */
char operators[] = {'+', '-', '*', '/', '%', '^', '(' };
int priority_value[] = {0,0,1,1,2,3,4};
if( op_at_stack == '(' )
return 0;
for(k = 0; k < 6; k ++)
{
if(op == operators[k])
pv1 = priority_value[k];
}
for(k = 0; k < 6; k ++)
{
if(op_at_stack == operators[k])
pv2 = priority_value[k];
}
if(pv1 < pv2)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
void push(char op) /* op - operator */
{
if(top == 0) /* before pushing the operator 'op'
{ into the stack check priority of op
opstack[top] = op; with top of opstack if less then pop
top++; the operator from stack then push
} into postfix string else push op
else onto stack itself */
{
if(op != '(' )
{
while(lesspriority(op, opstack[top-1]) == 1 && top > 0)
{
postfix[j] = opstack[--top];
j++;
}
}
opstack[top] = op; /* pushing onto stack */
top++;
}
}

pop()
{
while(opstack[--top] != '(' ) /* pop until '(' comes */
{
postfix[j] = opstack[top];
j++;
}
}

void main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter Infix Expression : ");
gets(infix);
while( (ch=infix[i++]) != ‘\0’)
{
switch(ch)
{
case ' ' : break;
case '(' :
case '+' :
case '-' :
case '*' :
case '/' :
case '^' :
case '%' :
push(ch); /* check priority and push */
break;
case ')' :
pop();
break;
default :
postfix[j] = ch;
j++;
}
}
while(top >= 0)
{
postfix[j] = opstack[--top];
j++;
 }
postfix[j] = '\0';
printf("\n Infix Expression : %s ", infix);
printf("\n Postfix Expression : %s ", postfix);
getch();
}

4.3.3. Conversion from infix to prefix:

The precedence rules for converting an expression from infix to prefix are identical. The
only change from postfix conversion is that traverse the expression from right to left and
the operator is placed before the operands rather than after them. The prefix form of a
complex expression is not the mirror image of the postfix form.

Example 1:

Convert the infix expression A + B - C into prefix expression.

PREFIX
SYMBOL STACK REMARKS
STRING
C C
- C -
B BC -
+ BC -+
A ABC -+
End of -+ABC The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols from the
string stack until it is empty.

Example 2:

Convert the infix expression (A + B) * (C - D) into prefix expression.

PREFIX
SYMBOL STACK REMARKS
STRING
) )
D D )
- D )-
C CD )-
( -CD
* -CD *
) -CD *)
B B-CD *)
+ B-CD *)+
A AB-CD *)+
( +AB–CD *
End of *+AB–CD The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols from the
string stack until it is empty.
Example 3:

Convert the infix expression A  B * C – D + E / F / (G + H) into prefix expression.

SYMBOL PREFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

) )

H H )

+ H )+

G GH )+

( +GH

/ +GH /

F F+GH /

/ F+GH //

E EF+GH //

+ //EF+GH +

D D//EF+GH +

- D//EF+GH +-

C CD//EF+GH +-

* CD//EF+GH +-*

B BCD//EF+GH +-*

 BCD//EF+GH + - * 

A ABCD//EF+GH + - * 
End of The input is now empty. Pop the output
+-*ABC D//EF+GH
string symbols from the stack until it is empty.

4.3.4. Program to convert an infix to prefix expression:

# include <conio.h>
# include <string.h>

char prefix[50];
char infix[50];
char opstack[50]; /* operator stack */
int j, top = 0;

void insert_beg(char ch)

{
int k;
if(j == 0)
prefix[0] = ch;
else
{
for(k = j + 1; k > 0; k--)
prefix[k] = prefix[k - 1];
prefix[0] = ch;
}
j++;
}
int lesspriority(char op, char op_at_stack)
{
int k;
int pv1; /* priority value of op */
int pv2; /* priority value of op_at_stack */
char operators[] = {'+', '-', '*', '/', '%', '^', ')'};
int priority_value[] = {0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4};
if(op_at_stack == ')' )
return 0;
for(k = 0; k < 6; k ++)
{
if(op == operators[k])
pv1 = priority_value[k];
}
for(k = 0; k < 6; k ++)
{
if( op_at_stack == operators[k] )
pv2 = priority_value[k];
}
if(pv1 < pv2)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

void push(char op) /* op – operator */

{
if(top == 0)
{
opstack[top] = op;
top++;
}
else
{
if(op != ')')
{
/* before pushing the operator 'op' into the stack check priority of op with
top of operator stack if less pop the operator from stack then push into postfix
string else push op onto stack itself */

while(lesspriority(op, opstack[top-1]) == 1 && top > 0)

{
insert_beg(opstack[--top]);
}
}
opstack[top] = op; /* pushing onto stack */
top++;
}
}

void pop()
{
while(opstack[--top] != ')') /* pop until ')' comes; */
insert_beg(opstack[top]);
}

void main()
{
char ch;
int l, i = 0;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter Infix Expression : ");
 gets(infix);
l = strlen(infix);
while(l > 0)
{
ch = infix[--l];
switch(ch)
{
case ' ' : break;
case ')' :
case '+' :
case '-' :
case '*' :
case '/' :
case '^' :
case '%' :
push(ch); /* check priority and push */
break;
case '(' :
pop();
break;
default :
insert_beg(ch);
}
}
while( top > 0 )
{
insert_beg( opstack[--top] );
j++;
}
prefix[j] = '\0';
printf("\n Infix Expression : %s ", infix);
printf("\n Prefix Expression : %s ", prefix);
getch();
}

4.3.5. Conversion from postfix to infix:

Procedure to convert postfix expression to infix expression is as follows:

1. Scan the postfix expression from left to right.

2. If the scanned symbol is an operand, then push it onto the stack.

3. If the scanned symbol is an operator, pop two symbols from the stack and
create it as a string by placing the operator in between the operands and
push it onto the stack.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 till the end of the expression.

Example:

Convert the following postfix expression A B C * D E F ^ / G * - H * + into its

equivalent infix expression.
 Symbol Stack Remarks

A A Push A

B A B Push B

C A B C Push C
Pop two operands and place the
* A (B*C) operator in between the operands and
push the string.
D A (B*C) D Push D

E A (B*C) D E Push E

F A (B*C) D E F Push F
Pop two operands and place the
^ A (B*C) D (E^F) operator in between the operands and
push the string.
Pop two operands and place the
/ A (B*C) (D/(E^F)) operator in between the operands and
push the string.

G A (B*C) (D/(E^F)) G Push G

Pop two operands and place the

* A (B*C) ((D/(E^F))*G) operator in between the operands and
push the string.
Pop two operands and place the
- A ((B*C) – ((D/(E^F))*G)) operator in between the operands and
push the string.
H A ((B*C) – ((D/(E^F))*G)) H Push H
Pop two operands and place the
* A (((B*C) – ((D/(E^F))*G)) * H) operator in between the operands and
push the string.

+ (A + (((B*C) – ((D/(E^F))*G)) * H))

End of
The input is now empty. The string formed is infix.
string

4.3.6. Program to convert postfix to infix expression:

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <string.h>
# define MAX 100

void pop (char*);

void push(char*);

char stack[MAX] [MAX];

int top = -1;
void main()
{
char s[MAX], str1[MAX], str2[MAX], str[MAX];
char s1[2],temp[2];
int i=0;
clrscr( ) ;
printf("\Enter the postfix expression; ");
gets(s);
while (s[i]!='\0')
{
if(s[i] == ' ' ) /*skip whitespace, if any*/
i++;
if (s[i] == '^' || s[i] == '*'|| s[i] == '-' || s[i] == '+' || s[i] == '/')
{
pop(str1);
pop(str2);
temp[0] ='(';
temp[1] ='\0';
strcpy(str, temp);
strcat(str, str2);
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcat(str,temp);
strcat(str, str1);
temp[0] =')';
temp[1] ='\0';
strcat(str,temp);
push(str);
}
else
{
temp[0]=s[i];
temp[1]='\0';
strcpy(s1, temp);
push(s1);
}
i++;
}

printf("\nThe Infix expression is: %s", stack[0]);

void pop(char *a1)

{
strcpy(a1,stack[top]);
top--;
}

void push (char*str)

{
if(top == MAX - 1)
printf("\nstack is full");
else
{
top++;
strcpy(stack[top], str);
}
}
4.3.7. Conversion from postfix to prefix:

Procedure to convert postfix expression to prefix expression is as follows:

1. Scan the postfix expression from left to right.

2. If the scanned symbol is an operand, then push it onto the stack.

3. If the scanned symbol is an operator, pop two symbols from the stack and
create it as a string by placing the operator in front of the operands and
push it onto the stack.

5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 till the end of the expression.

Example:

Convert the following postfix expression A B C * D E F ^ / G * - H * + into its

equivalent prefix expression.

Symbol Stack Remarks

A A Push A

B A B Push B

C A B C Push C

Pop two operands and place the operator in

* A *BC
front the operands and push the string.

D A *BC D Push D

E A *BC D E Push E

F A *BC D E F Push F

Pop two operands and place the operator in

^ A *BC D ^EF
front the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator in
/ A *BC /D^EF
front the operands and push the string.

G A *BC /D^EF G Push G

Pop two operands and place the operator in

* A *BC */D^EFG
front the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator in
- A - *BC*/D^EFG
front the operands and push the string.

H A - *BC*/D^EFG H Push H

Pop two operands and place the operator in

* A *- *BC*/D^EFGH
front the operands and push the string.

+ +A*-*BC*/D^EFGH

End of The input is now empty. The string formed is prefix.

string
4.3.8. Program to convert postfix to prefix expression:

# include <conio.h>
# include <string.h>

#define MAX 100

void pop (char *a1);
void push(char *str);
char stack[MAX][MAX];
int top =-1;

main()
{
char s[MAX], str1[MAX], str2[MAX], str[MAX];
char s1[2], temp[2];
int i = 0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the postfix expression; ");
gets (s);
while(s[i]!='\0')
{
/*skip whitespace, if any */
if (s[i] == ' ')
i++;
if(s[i] == '^' || s[i] == '*' || s[i] == '-' || s[i]== '+' || s[i] == '/')
{
pop (str1);
pop (str2);
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcpy (str, temp);
strcat(str, str2);
strcat(str, str1);
push(str);
}
else
{
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcpy (s1, temp);
push (s1);
}
i++;
}

printf("\n The prefix expression is: %s", stack[0]);

}

void pop(char*a1)
{
if(top == -1)
{
printf("\nStack is empty");
return ;
}
else
{
strcpy (a1, stack[top]);
top--;
}
}
void push (char *str)
{
if(top == MAX - 1)
printf("\nstack is full");
else
{
top++;
strcpy(stack[top], str);
}
}

4.3.9. Conversion from prefix to infix:

Procedure to convert prefix expression to infix expression is as follows:

1. Scan the prefix expression from right to left (reverse order).

2. If the scanned symbol is an operand, then push it onto the stack.
3. If the scanned symbol is an operator, pop two symbols from the stack and
create it as a string by placing the operator in between the operands and
push it onto the stack.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 till the end of the expression.

Example:

Convert the following prefix expression + A * - * B C * / D ^ E F G H into its equivalent

infix expression.

Symbol Stack Remarks

H H Push H

G H G Push G

F H G F Push F

E H G F E Push E
Pop two operands and place the operator
^ H G (E^F) in between the operands and push the
string.
D H G (E^F) D Push D
Pop two operands and place the operator
/ H G (D/(E^F)) in between the operands and push the
string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
* H ((D/(E^F))*G) in between the operands and push the
string.
C H ((D/(E^F))*G) C Push C

B H ((D/(E^F))*G) C B Push B
Pop two operands and place the operator
* H ((D/(E^F))*G) (B*C) in front the operands and push the
string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
- H ((B*C)-((D/(E^F))*G))
in front the operands and push the
 string.

Pop two operands and place the operator

* (((B*C)-((D/(E^F))*G))*H) in front the operands and push the
string.

A (((B*C)-((D/(E^F))*G))*H) A Push A
Pop two operands and place the operator
+ (A+(((B*C)-((D/(E^F))*G))*H)) in front the operands and push the
string.
End of The input is now empty. The string formed is infix.
string

4.3.10. Program to convert prefix to infix expression:

# include <string.h>
# define MAX 100

void pop (char*);

void push(char*);
char stack[MAX] [MAX];
int top = -1;

void main()
{
char s[MAX], str1[MAX], str2[MAX], str[MAX];
char s1[2],temp[2];
int i=0;
clrscr( ) ;
printf("\Enter the prefix expression; ");
gets(s);
strrev(s);
while (s[i]!='\0')
{
/*skip whitespace, if any*/
if(s[i] == ' ' )
i++;
if (s[i] == '^' || s[i] == '*'|| s[i] == '-' || s[i] == '+' || s[i] == '/')
{
pop(str1);
pop(str2);
temp[0] ='(';
temp[1] ='\0';
strcpy(str, temp);
strcat(str, str1);
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcat(str,temp);
strcat(str, str2);
temp[0] =')';
temp[1] ='\0';
strcat(str,temp);
push(str);
}
else
{
temp[0]=s[i];
temp[1]='\0';
strcpy(s1, temp);
push(s1);
 }
i++;
}
printf("\nThe infix expression is: %s", stack[0]);
}

void pop(char *a1)

{
strcpy(a1,stack[top]);
top--;
}

void push (char*str)

{
if(top == MAX - 1)
printf("\nstack is full");
else
{
top++;
strcpy(stack[top], str);
}
}

4.3.11. Conversion from prefix to postfix:

Procedure to convert prefix expression to postfix expression is as follows:

1. Scan the prefix expression from right to left (reverse order).

2. If the scanned symbol is an operand, then push it onto the stack.

3. If the scanned symbol is an operator, pop two symbols from the stack and
create it as a string by placing the operator after the operands and push it
onto the stack.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 till the end of the expression.

Example:

Convert the following prefix expression + A * - * B C * / D ^ E F G H into its equivalent

postfix expression.

Symbol Stack Remarks

H H Push H

G H G Push G

F H G F Push F

E H G F E Push E
Pop two operands and place the operator
^ H G EF^ after the operands and push the string.

D H G EF^ D Push D
 Pop two operands and place the operator
/ H G DEF^/
after the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
* H DEF^/G*
after the operands and push the string.

C H DEF^/G* C Push C

B H DEF^/G* C B Push B

Pop two operands and place the operator

* H DEF^/G* BC*
after the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
- H BC*DEF^/G*-
after the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
* BC*DEF^/G*-H*
after the operands and push the string.

A BC*DEF^/G*-H* A Push A

Pop two operands and place the operator

+ ABC*DEF^/G*-H*+
after the operands and push the string.
End of The input is now empty. The string formed is postfix.
string

4.3.12. Program to convert prefix to postfix expression:

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <string.h>

#define MAX 100

void pop (char *a1);

void push(char *str);
char stack[MAX][MAX];
int top =-1;

void main()
{
char s[MAX], str1[MAX], str2[MAX], str[MAX];
char s1[2], temp[2];
int i = 0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the prefix expression; ");
gets (s);
strrev(s);
while(s[i]!='\0')
{
if (s[i] == ' ') /*skip whitespace, if any */
i++;
if(s[i] == '^' || s[i] == '*' || s[i] == '-' || s[i]== '+' || s[i] == '/')
{
pop (str1);
pop (str2);
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcat(str1,str2);
strcat (str1, temp);
strcpy(str, str1);
push(str);
}
 else
{
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcpy (s1, temp);
push (s1);
}
i++;
}

printf("\nThe postfix expression is: %s", stack[0]);

}
void pop(char*a1)
{
if(top == -1)
{
printf("\nStack is empty");
return ;
}
else
{
strcpy (a1, stack[top]);
top--;
}
}

void push (char *str)

{
if(top == MAX - 1)
printf("\nstack is full");
else
{
top++;
strcpy(stack[top], str);
}
}

4.4. Evaluation of postfix expression:

The postfix expression is evaluated easily by the use of a stack. When a number is seen,
it is pushed onto the stack; when an operator is seen, the operator is applied to the two
numbers that are popped from the stack and the result is pushed onto the stack. When
an expression is given in postfix notation, there is no need to know any precedence rules;
this is our obvious advantage.

Example 1:

Evaluate the postfix expression: 6 5 2 3 + 8 * + 3 + *

OPERAND
SYMBOL OPERAND 2 VALUE STACK REMARKS
1
6 6

5 6, 5

2 6, 5, 2
The first four symbols are placed on
3 6, 5, 2, 3
the stack.
Next a ‘+’ is read, so 3 and 2 are
+ 2 3 5 6, 5, 5 popped from the stack and their sum
5, is pushed
 8 2 3 5 6, 5, 5, 8 Next 8 is pushed
Now a ‘*’ is seen, so 8 and 5 are
* 5 8 40 6, 5, 40
popped as 8 * 5 = 40 is pushed
Next, a ‘+’ is seen, so 40 and 5 are
+ 5 40 45 6, 45
popped and 40 + 5 = 45 is pushed
3 5 40 45 6, 45, 3 Now, 3 is pushed
Next, ‘+’ pops 3 and 45 and pushes
+ 45 3 48 6, 48
45 + 3 = 48 is pushed
Finally, a ‘*’ is seen and 48 and 6
* 6 48 288 288 are popped, the result 6 * 48 =
288 is pushed

Example 2:

Evaluate the following postfix expression: 6 2 3 + - 3 8 2 / + * 2  3 +

SYMBOL OPERAND 1 OPERAND 2 VALUE STACK

6 6

2 6, 2

3 6, 2, 3

+ 2 3 5 6, 5

- 6 5 1 1

3 6 5 1 1, 3

8 6 5 1 1, 3, 8

2 6 5 1 1, 3, 8, 2

/ 8 2 4 1, 3, 4

+ 3 4 7 1, 7

* 1 7 7 7

2 1 7 7 7, 2

 7 2 49 49

3 7 2 49 49, 3

+ 49 3 52 52

4.4.1. Program to evaluate a postfix expression:

# include <conio.h>
# include <math.h>
# define MAX 20

int isoperator(char ch)

{
if(ch == '+' || ch == '-' || ch == '*' || ch == '/' || ch == '^')
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
void main(void)
{
char postfix[MAX];
int val;
char ch;
int i = 0, top = 0;
float val_stack[MAX], val1, val2, res;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter a postfix expression: ");
scanf("%s", postfix);
while((ch = postfix[i]) != '\0')
{
if(isoperator(ch) == 1)
{
val2 = val_stack[--top];
val1 = val_stack[--top];
switch(ch)
{
case '+':
res = val1 + val2;
break;
case '-':
res = val1 - val2;
break;
case '*':
res = val1 * val2;
break;
case '/':
res = val1 / val2;
break;
case '^':
res = pow(val1, val2);
break;
}
val_stack[top] = res;
}
else
val_stack[top] = ch-48; /*convert character digit to integer digit */
top++;
i++;
}

printf("\n Values of %s is : %f ",postfix, val_stack[0] );

getch();
}

4.5. Applications of stacks:

1. Stack is used by compilers to check for balancing of parentheses, brackets

and braces.

2. Stack is used to evaluate a postfix expression.

3. Stack is used to convert an infix expression into postfix/prefix form.

4. In recursion, all intermediate arguments and return values are stored on the
processor’s stack.

5. During a function call the return address and arguments are pushed onto a
stack and on return they are popped off.
4.6. Queue:

A queue is another special kind of list, where items are inserted at one end called the
rear and deleted at the other end called the front. Another name for a queue is a “FIFO”
or “First-in-first-out” list.

The operations for a queue are analogues to those for a stack, the difference is that the
insertions go at the end of the list, rather than the beginning. We shall use the following
operations on queues:

 enqueue: which inserts an element at the end of the queue.

 dequeue: which deletes an element at the start of the queue.

4.6.1. Representation of Queue:

Let us consider a queue, which can hold maximum of five elements. Initially the queue
is empty.

0 1 2 3 4
Q u eu e E mp t y
F RO NT = RE A R = 0

FR

Now, insert 11 to the queue. Then queue status will be:

0 1 2 3 4

11 RE A R = RE A R + 1 = 1
FRO NT = 0

F R

Next, insert 22 to the queue. Then the queue status is:

0 1 2 3 4

11 22 RE A R = RE A R + 1 = 2
FRO NT = 0

F R

Again insert another element 33 to the queue. The status of the queue is:

0 1 2 3 4
RE A R = RE A R + 1 = 3
11 22 33
FRO NT = 0

F R
Now, delete an element. The element deleted is the element at the front of the queue.
So the status of the queue is:

0 1 2 3 4
RE A R = 3
22 33
F RO NT = F R O NT + 1 = 1

F R

Again, delete an element. The element to be deleted is always pointed to by the FRONT
pointer. So, 22 is deleted. The queue status is as follows:

0 1 2 3 4

33 RE A R = 3
F RO NT = F R O NT + 1 = 2

F R

Now, insert new elements 44 and 55 into the queue. The queue status is:

0 1 2 3 4

33 44 55 RE A R = 5
FRO NT = 2

F R

Next insert another element, say 66 to the queue. We cannot insert 66 to the queue as
the rear crossed the maximum size of the queue (i.e., 5). There will be queue full signal.
The queue status is as follows:

0 1 2 3 4
RE A R = 5
33 44 55
FRO NT = 2

F R

Now it is not possible to insert an element 66 even though there are two vacant positions
in the linear queue. To over come this problem the elements of the queue are to be
shifted towards the beginning of the queue so that it creates vacant position at the rear
end. Then the FRONT and REAR are to be adjusted properly. The element 66 can be
inserted at the rear end. After this operation, the queue status is as follows:

0 1 2 3 4

33 44 55 66 RE A R = 4
FRO NT = 0

F R

This difficulty can overcome if we treat queue position with index 0 as a position that
comes after position with index 4 i.e., we treat the queue as a circular queue.
4.6.2. Source code for Queue operations using array:

In order to create a queue we require a one dimensional array Q(1:n) and two variables
front and rear. The conventions we shall adopt for these two variables are that front is
always 1 less than the actual front of the queue and rear always points to the last element
in the queue. Thus, front = rear if and only if there are no elements in the queue. The
initial condition then is front = rear = 0. The various queue operations to perform
creation, deletion and display the elements in a queue are as follows:

1. insertQ(): inserts an element at the end of queue Q.

2. deleteQ(): deletes the first element of Q.
3. displayQ(): displays the elements in the queue.

# include <conio.h>
# define MAX 6
int Q[MAX];
int front, rear;

void insertQ()
{
int data;
if(rear == MAX)
{
printf("\n Linear Queue is full");
return;
}
else
{
printf("\n Enter data: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
Q[rear] = data;
rear++;
printf("\n Data Inserted in the Queue ");
}
}

void deleteQ()
{
if(rear == front)
{
printf("\n\n Queue is Empty..");
return;
}
else
{
printf("\n Deleted element from Queue is %d", Q[front]);
front++;
}
}

void displayQ()
{
int i;
if(front == rear)
{
printf("\n\n\t Queue is Empty");
return;
}
else
{
printf("\n Elements in Queue are: ");
for(i = front; i < rear; i++)
 {
printf("%d\t", Q[i]);
}
}
}
int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n \tQueue operations using ARRAY..");
printf("\n -----------********** ------------ \n");
printf("\n 1. Insert ");
printf("\n 2. Delete ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter your choice: ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}
void main()
{
int ch;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
insertQ();
break;
case 2:
deleteQ();
break;
case 3:
displayQ();
break;
case 4:
return;
}

getch();
} while(1);
}

4.6.3. Linked List Implementation of Queue:

We can represent a queue as a linked list. In a queue data is deleted from the front end
and inserted at the rear end. We can perform similar operations on the two ends of a list.
We use two pointers front and rear for our linked queue implementation.

The linked queue looks as shown in figure 4.4:

Figure 4.4. Linked Queue representation

4.6.4. Source code for queue operations using linked list:

# include <stdlib.h>
# include <conio.h>

struct queue
{
int data;
struct queue *next;
};
typedef struct queue node;
node *front = NULL;
node *rear = NULL;

node* getnode()
{
node *temp;
temp = (node *) malloc(sizeof(node)) ;
printf("\n Enter data ");
scanf("%d", &temp -> data);
temp -> next = NULL;
return temp;
}
void insertQ()
{
node *newnode;
newnode = getnode();
if(newnode == NULL)
{
printf("\n Queue Full");
return;
}
if(front == NULL)
{
front = newnode;
rear = newnode;
}
else
{
rear -> next = newnode;
rear = newnode;
}

printf("\n\n\t Data Inserted into the Queue..");

}
void deleteQ()
{
node *temp;
if(front == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t Empty Queue..");
return;
}
temp = front;
front = front -> next;
printf("\n\n\t Deleted element from queue is %d ", temp -> data);
free(temp);
}
void displayQ()
{
node *temp;
if(front == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t\t Empty Queue ");
}
else
{
temp = front;
printf("\n\n\n\t\t Elements in the Queue are: ");
while(temp != NULL )
{
printf("%5d ", temp -> data);
temp = temp -> next;
}
}
}

char menu()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n \t..Queue operations using pointers.. ");
printf("\n\t -----------********** ------------ \n");
printf("\n 1. Insert ");
printf("\n 2. Delete ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter your choice: ");
ch = getche();
return ch;
}

void main()
{
char ch;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case '1' :
insertQ();
break;
case '2' :
deleteQ();
break;
case '3' :
displayQ();
break;
case '4':
return;
}
getch();
} while(ch != '4');
}
4.7. Applications of Queue:

1. It is used to schedule the jobs to be processed by the CPU.

2. When multiple users send print jobs to a printer, each printing job is kept in
the printing queue. Then the printer prints those jobs according to first in first
out (FIFO) basis.

3. Breadth first search uses a queue data structure to find an element from a
graph.

4.8. Circular Queue:

A more efficient queue representation is obtained by regarding the array Q[MAX] as

circular. Any number of items could be placed on the queue. This implementation of a
queue is called a circular queue because it uses its storage array as if it were a circle
instead of a linear list.

There are two problems associated with linear queue. They are:

 Time consuming: linear time to be spent in shifting the elements to the

beginning of the queue.

 Signaling queue full: even if the queue is having vacant position.

For example, let us consider a linear queue status as follows:

0 1 2 3 4

33 44 55 RE A R = 5
FRO NT = 2

F R

Next insert another element, say 66 to the queue. We cannot insert 66 to the queue as
the rear crossed the maximum size of the queue (i.e., 5). There will be queue full signal.
The queue status is as follows:

0 1 2 3 4

33 44 55 RE A R = 5
FRO NT = 2

F R

This difficulty can be overcome if we treat queue position with index zero as a position
that comes after position with index four then we treat the queue as a circular queue.

In circular queue if we reach the end for inserting elements to it, it is possible to insert
new elements if the slots at the beginning of the circular queue are empty.
4.8.1. Representation of Circular Queue:

Let us consider a circular queue, which can hold maximum (MAX) of six elements.
Initially the queue is empty.

FR

1 Q u e u e E mp t y
4 MA X = 6
F RO NT = RE A R = 0
CO U NT = 0

Circ u lar Q u e u e

Now, insert 11 to the circular queue. Then circular queue status will be:

FRO NT = 0
4 RE A R = ( RE A R + 1) % 6 = 1
CO U NT = 1

Circ u lar Q u e u e

Insert new elements 22, 33, 44 and 55 into the circular queue. The circular queue
status is:
F
R
0
5
11

55 22 1 FRONT = 0
4
REAR = (REAR + 1) % 6 = 5
COUNT = 5

44 33

3 2

Circular Queue
Now, delete an element. The element deleted is the element at the front of the circular
queue. So, 11 is deleted. The circular queue status is as follows:

F RO NT = (F R O NT + 1) % 6 = 1
4 RE A R = 5
CO U NT = CO U NT - 1 = 4

Circ u lar Q u e u e

Again, delete an element. The element to be deleted is always pointed to by the FRONT
pointer. So, 22 is deleted. The circular queue status is as follows:

F RO NT = (F R O NT + 1) % 6 = 2
4 RE A R = 5
CO U NT = CO U NT - 1 = 3

Circ u lar Q u e u e

Again, insert another element 66 to the circular queue. The status of the circular queue
is:
R

4 F R O NT = 2
RE A R = ( RE A R + 1) % 6 = 0
C O U NT = C O U NT + 1 = 4

Circ u lar Q u e u e
Now, insert new elements 77 and 88 into the circular queue. The circular queue status
is:

0
5
66 77

55 88 1
4
F RO NT = 2, RE A R = 2
RE A R = RE A R % 6 = 2
CO U NT = 6
44 33
2 R
3 F

Circ u lar Q u e u e

Now, if we insert an element to the circular queue, as COUNT = MAX we cannot add
the element to circular queue. So, the circular queue is full.

4.8.2. Source code for Circular Queue operations, using array:

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# define MAX 6

int CQ[MAX];
int front = 0;
int rear = 0;
int count = 0;

void insertCQ()
{
int data;
if(count == MAX)
{
printf("\n Circular Queue is Full");
}
else
{
printf("\n Enter data: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
CQ[rear] = data;
rear = (rear + 1) % MAX;
count ++;
printf("\n Data Inserted in the Circular Queue ");
}
}

void deleteCQ()
{
if(count == 0)
{
printf("\n\nCircular Queue is Empty..");
}
else
{
printf("\n Deleted element from Circular Queue is %d ", CQ[front]);
front = (front + 1) % MAX;
count --;
}
}
void displayCQ()
{
int i, j;
if(count == 0)
{
printf("\n\n\t Circular Queue is Empty ");
}
else
{
printf("\n Elements in Circular Queue are: ");
j = count;
for(i = front; j != 0; j--)
{
printf("%d\t", CQ[i]);
i = (i + 1) % MAX;
}
}
}

int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n \t Circular Queue Operations using ARRAY..");
printf("\n -----------********** ------------ \n");
printf("\n 1. Insert ");
printf("\n 2. Delete ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter Your Choice: ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}

void main()
{
int ch;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
insertCQ();
break;
case 2:
deleteCQ();
break;
case 3:
displayCQ();
break;
case 4:
return;
default:
printf("\n Invalid Choice ");
}

getch();
} while(1);
}
4.9. Deque:

In the preceding section we saw that a queue in which we insert items at one end and
from which we remove items at the other end. In this section we examine an extension
of the queue, which provides a means to insert and remove items at both ends of the
queue. This data structure is a deque. The word deque is an acronym derived from
double-ended queue. Figure 4.5 shows the representation of a deque.

Deletion Insertion
36 16 56 62 19

Insertion Deletion
front rear

Figure 4.5. Representation of a deque.

A deque provides four operations. Figure 4.6 shows the basic operations on a deque.

 enqueue_front: insert an element at front.

 dequeue_front: delete an element at front.
 enqueue_rear: insert element at rear.
 dequeue_rear: delete element at rear.

enqueue_front(3

dequeue_front(33)

enqueue_front(5

Figure 4.6. Basic operations on deque

There are two variations of deque. They are:

 Input restricted deque (IRD)

 Output restricted deque (ORD)

An Input restricted deque is a deque, which allows insertions at one end but allows
deletions at both ends of the list.

An output restricted deque is a deque, which allows deletions at one end but allows
insertions at both ends of the list.
4.10. Priority Queue:

A priority queue is a collection of elements such that each element has been assigned a
priority and such that the order in which elements are deleted and processed comes from
the following rules:

1. An element of higher priority is processed before any element of lower

priority.

2. two elements with same priority are processed according to the order in
which they were added to the queue.

A prototype of a priority queue is time sharing system: programs of high priority are
processed first, and programs with the same priority form a standard queue. An efficient
implementation for the Priority Queue is to use heap, which in turn can be used for sorting
purpose called heap sort.

Exercises

1. What is a linear data structure? Give two examples of linear data structures.

2. Is it possible to have two designs for the same data structure that provide the
same functionality but are implemented differently?

3. What is the difference between the logical representation of a data structure and
the physical representation?

4. Transform the following infix expressions to reverse polish notation:

a) A  B * C – D + E / F / (G + H)
b) ((A + B) * C – (D – E))  (F + G)
c) A – B / (C * D  E)
d) (a + b  c  d) * (e + f / d))
f) 3 – 6 * 7 + 2 / 4 * 5 – 8
g) (A – B) / ((D + E) * F)
h) ((A + B) / D)  ((E – F) * G)

5. Evaluate the following postfix expressions:

a) P1: 5, 3, +, 2, *, 6, 9, 7, -, /, -
b) P2: 3, 5, +, 6, 4, -, *, 4, 1, -, 2, , +
c) P3 : 3, 1, +, 2, , 7, 4, -, 2, *, +, 5, -

6. Consider the usual algorithm to convert an infix expression to a postfix expression.

Suppose that you have read 10 input characters during a conversion and that the
stack now contains these symbols:

+
(
bottom *
Now, suppose that you read and process the 11th symbol of the input. Draw the
stack for the case where the 11th symbol is:
A. A number:
B. A left parenthesis:
C. A right parenthesis:
D. A minus sign:
E. A division sign:
7. Write a program using stack for parenthesis matching. Explain what modifications
would be needed to make the parenthesis matching algorithm check expressions
with different kinds of parentheses such as (), [] and {}'s.

8. Evaluate the following prefix expressions:

a) + * 2 + / 14 2 5 1
b) - * 6 3 – 4 1
c) + + 2 6 + - 13 2 4

9. Convert the following infix expressions to prefix notation:

a) ((A + 2) * (B + 4)) -1
b) Z – ((((X + 1) * 2) – 5) / Y)
c) ((C * 2) + 1) / (A + B)
d) ((A + B) * C – (D - E))  (F + G)
e) A – B / (C * D  E)

10. Write a “C” function to copy one stack to another assuming

a) The stack is implemented using array.
b) The stack is implemented using linked list.

11. Write an algorithm to construct a fully parenthesized infix expression from its
postfix equivalent. Write a “C” function for your algorithm.

12. How can one convert a postfix expression to its prefix equivalent and vice-versa?

13. A double-ended queue (deque) is a linear list where additions and deletions can be
performed at either end. Represent a deque using an array to store the elements
of the list and write the “C” functions for additions and deletions.

14. In a circular queue represented by an array, how can one specify the number of
elements in the queue in terms of “front”, “rear” and MAX-QUEUE-SIZE? Write a
“C” function to delete the K-th element from the “front” of a circular queue.

15. Can a queue be represented by a circular linked list with only one pointer pointing
to the tail of the queue? Write “C” functions for the “add” and “delete” operations
on such a queue

16. Write a “C” function to test whether a string of opening and closing parenthesis is
well formed or not.

17. Represent N queues in a single one-dimensional array. Write functions for “add”
and “delete” operations on the ith queue

18. Represent a stack and queue in a single one-dimensional array. Write functions for
“push”, “pop” operations on the stack and “add”, “delete” functions on the queue.