The Importance of the First Three Years of Life

Thinking Ahead
1. What are the influences on infant and toddler development?
2. How does a responsive, relationship-based education and care program
provide the most effective environment and curriculum for infants and
toddlers?
3. How does poverty influence development?
4. What are some of the cognitive and language milestones across the first
36 months of development?
5. What are some of the social and emotional milestones across the first
36 months of development?
6. What are some of the large and small muscle development milestones
across the first 36 months?

The first three years are a period of incredible growth across all domains of
development: cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and language. This is an
exciting and challenging moment in history for babies, families, and their
teachers. The excitement is generated because scientific research has
confirmed the critical importance and has advanced our appreciation of the
first three years of life. The challenge becomes real because of the
overwhelming responsibility we have in caring for our young children.

Making the Most of the First 3 Years

 What we do with infants and toddlers –
our interactions, the opportunities and
experiences we provide children, and
our nurturing skills – exert a powerful
influence on how children build
relationships, learn about the world, and
succeed in their lives. As teachers of
infants and toddlers, we have a unique
opportunity to build strong relationships
with children and their families, making a
difference in all their lives. The
opportunity to make this difference and
to provide a positive influence on children and families depends on the quality
of the program. Organizations like ZERO TO THREE and the National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) have defined the
standards of quality programming for children birth to 3 years. Additionally,
NAEYC has developed standards for the educational preparation of early care
and education teachers. Well-prepared teachers learn that they must utilize
every moment with children intentionally through maximized experiences,
routines, and nurturance. Responsive, reflective, and relationship-based
practice are the hallmarks of quality infant and toddler educare.

Current brain research has provided evidence of the connection between

quality education and care and a baby’s ability to develop all the human skills
needed for school success and a healthy, satisfying life. “Warm, responsive
care is not only comforting for an infant; it is critical to healthy development”
(Shore, 2003, p. 12). Brain research also stresses the importance of building
strong, respectful, reciprocal relationships with infants, toddlers, and their
families. The needs of young children are met through these partnerships
which view children, families, and educators as capable, competent, and
caring.

A knowledgeable, passionate early childhood educator’s job is to promote

competence, well-being, healthy development, and quality of life for infants,
toddlers, and their families. Competence refers to a child’s adaptability and
flexibility in daily changes. Well-being is “how a child feels and thinks about
him- or herself and the joy and satisfaction that the child experiences in
regard to his or her relationships and accomplishments” (Erickson & Kurz-
Reimer, 1999, p. 26). Quality of life “refers to the child’s feelings about the
value, worth, living conditions, and relationships that he or she experiences”
(Wittmer & Petersen, 2010, p. 2). It is imperative that education and care
providers develop a community of caring that honors and respects the
importance of the infant and toddler years.

Relationship-Based Education and Care

Infants’ and toddlers’ emotional and social needs include feeling safe,
loved, valued, and connected to their culture, family, important adults and
peers. Building relationships meets these needs of young children and creates
the environment in which children’s development flourishes. A relationship-
based model of education and care respects how the individual child’s
characteristics and the environment affect the quality of the child’s
relationships. These relationships then serve as the channel for children’s
development and feeling of well-being.

A relationship-based model acknowledges that caring, productive

relationships are essential to human growth and development. Infants and
toddlers benefit from relationship-building skills such as problem solving and
initiating interactions; these skills are vital for later success in schools,
families, and society. Infants and toddlers need loving adults who will
nurture, protect and support their learning, as well as provide respectful,
loving responsiveness to children’s needs. Responsiveness refers to how well
an adult can understand what the young child is trying to communicate
through his or her cues such as facial expressions, gestures, words, and
postures, and how the adult reacts to the child. A responsive adult is “in
sync” with the child and responds with care and sensitivity. In education and
care settings, young children feel more secure to learn and care for others
when the teachers are involved with the children, engaging them in
conversations and activities, comforting them, and showing affection
(Wittmer & Petersen, 2010). The more sensitive, attentive and engaged the
teacher is with children as compared to being harsh, critical, punitive or
detached, the more secure the child feels with the teacher (Howes &
Hamilton, 1992).

Chapter 7 - Section 2
Development

Development is often divided

into four broad domains: physical,
cognitive,
language, and emotional-social. We
think of these domains as being
distinct, yet we know they combine
in an integrated, holistic way to
mold an individual, unique
child. Each domain is influenced by the others. For instance, new motor
capabilities such as crawling (physical) which allows greater exploration of
the environment, contribute to the infant’s cognitive development.

Developmental Milestones from Infancy to Toddlers

 Development in the first three years of life is a fascinating complex
process because all the domains are interdependent. Emerging capabilities in
one area enables change in another. For instance, as an infant’s neck muscles
develop, allowing them to lift their head, the infant’s vision sharpens, thus
allowing them to focus on smaller objects in their purview. Development does
not always follow a continuous path; a child may move forward, attain a new
skill and then reach a plateau during which development seems to stand still.
Often what is occurring is a consolidation and establishment of the new
accomplishment.

Development is not only divided

into integrated domains, but also into
time periods. What follows are the
commonly accepted age division of the
prenatal period and first thirty-six
months of life: Prenatal
development (conception-
birth), normally a 9-month period,
marks the most rapid time of change
from a one-celled organism into a
human baby with great facility for
acclimating to life in the world. After
infants are born, early childhood teachers plan for and provide care in four
age groups: young infants (birth-9 months), mobile infants (8-18
months), toddlers (16-25 months), and twos (24-36 months). The overlap of
ages occurs because individual development follows its own path and
proceeds at its own rate. Development is often benchmarked based on what
constitutes “normal” growth and developmental milestones. Developmental
milestones are based on averages of children’s growth within a chronological
age span. Knowing the milestones of different stages of development allows
early childhood educators to assess children’s or lack of growth.

Ages of Infancy - Caring for Young, Mobile, Older Infants

 It is important that educators also consider the unique development of
each individual child. One child may be efficiently using the toilet at age 2
while another child may still be “having accidents” at age 3. One infant may
walk at 9 months of age while another does not walk until 14 months.
Because of the wide range of individual differences, it is sometimes difficult to
differentiate between an individual difference in development and what might
be a developmental delay that requires intervention. Being cognizant of
cultural contexts and reviewing developmental sequences aids in one’s
assessment of the individual child.

Cultural contexts – the basic values, language, religion, beliefs, food and
cultural practices - influence the development of children through the child-
rearing practices, experiences, habits, and routines in the raising of children.
Everyone views the world through the lens of their own culture (Small, 1998)
and these culturally-based outlooks define the child and family’s interactions,
traditions, and way of life. The influence of culture will be discussed later in
this chapter.

In Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP), educators use these three

core understandings to meet the needs of each child: 1) what is known about
child development and learning; 2) what is known about each child as an
individual; and 3) what is known about the social and cultural contexts in
which children live. Understanding the complex process of development
requires the early childhood educator to be knowledgeable about child
development to make relatively accurate predictions about children’s
expertise based on their chronological age ranges. Understanding the
complex process that is development allows the early childhood educator to
get to know and appreciate children as the unique individuals they are; each
child brings his or her own interests, strengths, needs, and culture. Armed
with this knowledge, it makes it possible for the early childhood educator to
become more culturally competent as one begins to understand the
similarities and differences among families. As a result, one becomes a more
responsive and effective teacher.

Chapter 7 - Section 3
 Influences on Development

Nature-Nurture

When discussing development, the age-old nature-nurture

controversy pits genetic factors against environmental factors as the most
important influence on development. Nature refers to the biological make-up
inherent in the hereditary code we receive from our parents at the second of
conception. Nurture refers to the complex amalgamation of social experiences
and physical factors that influence our biological and psychological makeup
before and after birth. If one believes that development is predominantly due
to nature, then providing rich, early experiences as intervention has little
value. If however, one believes that nurture is most important then early
intervention in the form of high-quality, intentional experience is believed to
make the difference in children’s development. Most modern educators now
acknowledge that heredity and environment are inextricably interwoven, each
influencing the other (Berk, 2012).

Nature vs. Nurture: Psych 101

Brain Development
 The brain begins developing in the days following
conception and continues throughout a human’s life.
Over several weeks of prenatal growth, fetal brain
cells – neurons - are created at about the rate of
250,000 a minute and become differentiated into the
forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. The
forebrain becomes the cerebrum which controls
thinking and language; the midbrain becomes
the thalamus and hypothalamus which controls the
generation of sensory information; and the hindbrain becomes
the cerebellum and the brain stem which control heartbeat, respiration, and
motor development (Wittmer & Petersen, 2010). In the last three months of
gestation, the previously smooth surface of the brain becomes folded and
grooved due to the rapid growth that makes the brain fold in on itself.
Additionally, the brain is divided into two hemispheres with a crease – the
longitudinal fissure – down the middle.

At birth, babies have about 100 billion brain cells which will be “pruned”
down to half that number by adulthood. The job of the neurons is to make
connections with other neurons, exchanging information. Each neuron has
an axon (transmitter), a thin filament that conducts electrical pulses
containing information from the neuron to the dendrites (receptors) in other
cells. Each neuron has many dendrites that receive electrical pulses from
other neurons, receiving the information through a connection called a
synapse (Shore, 1997). The experiences and stimuli in the fetus’, and later,
the baby’s life are responsible for the formation of the connections, or
synapses. The synapses that are used repeatedly in the infant’s life are
strengthened and fortified, while those synapses that are not revitalized
through use are eradicated via a process called pruning (Chugani, 1998).
Those synapses which are activated frequently are protected from pruning.
All of an infant’s learning will follow this process of being built and
strengthened by repetition; conversely, the learning will fail to emerge due to
lack of experience and pruning will result. It is apparent that frequent,
positive and nurturing experiences have an enormous and lasting effect on
the brain and the proliferation of neural pathways.

The Secret Life of the Baby�s Brain

Importance of Early Experiences

During an infant’s first year of life, the

brain grows to nearly 70% of its adult size
and by age three to 90% of an adult,
establishing most of the composition that
will direct future social, behavioral, and
emotional performance throughout the
child’s life. These domains of
development are positively built through
responsive, nurturing relationships with
adults. The adults in the infant’s life
provide the experiences through their relationship with the infant that build
the brain synapses. The quality, frequency, and pattern of these repeated
synapse-building experiences and interactions “trains” the brain for either
positive or negative social, behavioral, and emotional performance
throughout the child’s life.

Infants and toddlers are born with a curiosity for exploring their
environment. They have goals for their own construction of knowledge and
develop strategies – language, motor, social and cognitive tools – to reach
these learning goals. In addition to being curious, infants and toddlers are
motivated to solve problems and possess great stores of energy to sustain
their exploration. This exploration materializes optimally with adults to whom
the child has a strong attachment, who makes them feel safe, nurturing the
child and supporting their learning.

Baby Milestones: 18-24 Months

 Attachment theory focuses on
the basic feelings of trust, safety,
and security (Bowlby, 1980). John
Bowlby posited that children have
an exploratory system that
motivates them to venture out and
learn about their world. In
addition, children have an
attachment system which
motivates them to stay close to
trusted, nurturing adults who will protect and make them feel secure. The two
systems work in tandem to provide a sheltered base from which the child can
safely and securely venture out to play, explore, and discover the world,
checking back with the attachment relationship – the person they can count
on to keep them safe and meet their needs. The secure attachment between
the young child and the adult is built over time through consistent,
responsive, sensitive and nurturing interactions.

John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations

Over time as the secure attachment is nurtured, the young child also
learns self-regulation. Self-regulation is the ability of a human to adapt one’s
reactions to feelings, sensory experiences, people, and the environment. Self-
regulation allows a child to concentrate and focus on a task, act in a socially
acceptable way, and control emotions positively (Berk, 2012). The
development of self-regulation blazes the trail for the development
of executive functioning – the ability to plan, sequence, organize behavior,
and show flexibility and control of one’s behavior (Wittmer & Petersen, 2010).
The importance of building secure attachments cannot be over-emphasized –
it is the support, security, and nurturance offered by adults in the very early
years of a child’s life that establishes the foundation of later cognitive, social,
and emotional development.
 Temperament

Temperament is defined as the stable

individual differences in quality and
intensity of emotional reaction, activity
level, attention, and emotional self-
regulation (Rothbart & Bates, 1998).
Research shows that temperament
increases the chances that a child will
either be protected from the stresses of
daily life or succumb and experience
psychological problems. Parenting
practices, to a large degree, can modify a
child’s temperament (Thomas & Chess, 1977).

Understanding a Child's Temperament

Thomas and Chess (1977) created a model of temperament that includes

nine dimensions: activity level, rhythmicity (regularity of body functions),
distractibility, approach/withdrawal, adaptability (to new environments),
attention span and persistence, intensity of reaction, threshold of
responsiveness (intensity of stimulation required to evoke a response), and
quality of mood. Data collection on individual characteristics was then
clustered into three descriptors of children:

 The easy child quickly establishes regular routines, is generally

cheerful, and adapts easily to new situations
 The difficult child is irregular in daily routines, is slow to adapt to
new experiences, and tends to react negatively and strongly
 The slow-to-warm-up child is inactive, shows mild, low-key
reactions to stimuli, possesses a negative mood, and adjusts
slowly to new experiences
 Goodness to Fit � One Size Does Not Fit / Carly Jeffrey

Temperament is not firmly set in infancy; it develops with age. For

example, a “fussy” infant can become calmer as his nervous system develops
and better regulates his reaction to environmental stimuli. Genetic makeup
has been shown to contribute to approximately half of individual
temperamental makeup (Saudino & Cherny, 2001). Environment also exerts a
powerful influence on temperament. For example, severe malnutrition
generally causes a child to be more distractible and fearful (Wachs & Bates,
2001). Parenting styles also exert an influence on temperament. Jansen and
his fellow researchers found that infants in lower income families were more
likely to have a difficult temperament that may be partly explained by family
stress, maternal depression, and food and housing insecurity (Jansen, Raat,
Mackenbach, Jaddoe, Hofman, Verhulst, et al., 2009).

Early research proposed that temperament styles were fixed and stable
throughout life (Caspi & Silva, 1995). However, more recent research
suggests that child-rearing styles and environmental influences such as
poverty and poor childcare settings can significantly alter temperament
during the first three years of life (Worobey &Islas-Lopez, 2009). Thomas and
Chess (1977) offered a goodness-of-fit model to explain how temperament
coupled with environmental factors can produce favorable results. Goodness
of fit requires child-rearing environments that recognize children’s individual
temperaments while consistently helping children to adapt to their behavior
to be socially acceptable. The type of temperament a child has is less
important to their development than the temperamental match between the
infant and the care provider.

The Effects of Poverty

The 2019 statistics on

poverty show an alarming
number of American children
under the age of 6 –
5,290,540 children – living in poverty. The term poverty is defined by income
thresholds. One of those designations is low income which is used to denote
families whose income is at or below twice the federal poverty level (NCCP,
2016). For instance, the 2015 National Poverty Guidelines indicate that a
family of four making twice that amount or less would be considered at
the low income level. Almost half of the children under 6 living at the poverty
level are living in extreme poverty, which is defined as half the poverty
threshold or less than $13,086 for a family of four (Children’s Defense Fund
2021). Children from homes that experience low income or poverty are more
likely to suffer from inadequate nutrition, insecure housing, abuse and/or
neglect, and lack of adequate health care.

The effects of poverty are injurious

and pervade all aspects of young
children’s lives as children, and later on
as adults. Families in poverty have
difficulty providing adequate nutrition,
health care, and decent housing for their
children. Families struggle to find
adequate paying jobs; quality, affordable
child care; and basic services. When
people are in poverty, children’s development is seriously threatened. The
stress that accompanies poverty weakens the family unit. Families in poverty
struggle to pay bills and find safe child care; live from paycheck to paycheck,
often running out of money before the week is up; and often have to move
because they cannot afford the rent. Parents become irritable, depressed, and
aggressive behavior can increase, resulting in children’s arrested
development. A palpable effect of poverty is on brain growth. Neuroscientists
at the University of California Berkley have shown differences in the brain
function of low-income children comparable to those in stroke patients
(Sanders, 2008). It makes sense that high quality childcare, universal health
care, and increased services in nutrition and housing can positively affect the
lives of children living in poverty.

Chapter 7 - Section 4
 Development and Culture

Infant and toddler development can only be fully understood when it is

viewed in its larger cultural context. Cultural values and practices affect the
environmental contexts in which children develop. A range of beliefs and
practices define who children and families are, their traditions and way of life,
as well as their interactions. Cultural values shape the home and community
environments, child care settings, schools, and all aspects of daily life.

These community and home

subcultures may reflect the values of the
larger culture in which they reside, but
often may not share the same beliefs. A
good example of this is the clash of
an individualistic society as exists in the
United States – one in which
independence and self-reliance are the
hallmarks, and in which families are believed to be responsible for the care
and educational decision-making and payment – versus a more collectivist
society which views the individual as part of a larger group and deems the
good of the larger group takes precedence. A collectivist society recognizes
the rights of its citizens, including children, and invests in long-term policies
that benefit the individual – health care, quality child care and education –
which ultimately contribute to the betterment of the entire community. Many
ethnic minority groups provide their own collectivist structures such as the
community church and the extended family.

Cultural Dimension: Me or We

Many African-American,
Hispanic, and Asian-American
families enjoy the tradition
of extended-family
households in which the nuclear
family of parents and children live with other relatives. Within this extended
family, grandparents provide child care and guidance for the youngest in the
family, share financial support and household chores with the adults in the
household, and provide their wisdom regarding child-rearing (Berk, 2012).
The extended-family plays an important role in transmitting the home culture
to the other members of the family. This may include the moral and religious
values, traditions and celebrations, and possibly, the language of the cultural
group.

Just as children bring their cultural contexts to the child care settings and
schools which they attend, each educare provider brings his or her unique
cultural experiences and belief system to the education and care setting. It is
imperative that the early childhood professional is sensitive to the cultural
diversity of the children and families in their care. Every culture has different
customs, beliefs and attitudes about child care and education. Prejudging
these culturally embedded principles is an example of bias. Education and
care providers must examine and be aware of their biases for certain cultural
styles and practices. Each child is a unique individual whose development is
determined by universal child development factors as well as his cultural
contexts.

Chapter 7 - Section 5
Emotional and Social Development

Healthy emotional and social

development begins with the
establishment of a healthy attachment to
another human, typically the parent.
Grounded in this trusting relationship,
infants and toddlers can gradually
venture out to explore and expand
relationships and learn about their world
that they view as a good place. Emotional development refers to children’s
ability to manage, recognize, and express their feelings as well as to
understand and appropriately respond to the feelings of those around them.
Social development refers to children’s ability to create and sustain
relationships with those around them. Healthy development in the social and
emotional domains, ensures healthy development in all domains of learning.

Early Years In Action - Personal, Social and Emotional Development

Birth to Four Months

This is the period of a child’s development when the foundation of security

and attachment are being built. Parents and care providers offer the kind of
relationships, consistency, and experiences that facilitate the development of
this security. Relationships and how the child is treated provide the contexts
in which trust and security are formed. Immediate and consistent
responsiveness to the child’s cues is most important in helping the infant feel
secure (Swim & Watson, 2011).

Temperament – the infant’s principal style of

behavior and reaction to stimuli – emerges during this
period of development. The activity level of the infant
becomes predictable. Highly active infants get plenty
of activity kicking, squirming, and wiggling. Quiet
infants may seem easier to care for, yet they need to
be moved around to stimulate their activity level.
Infants have differing levels of sensory threshold –
how a child responds to environmental stimuli such as
light. Emotional development requires consistent and
focused responsiveness to the child’s needs, verbal
and non-verbal interaction, and comforting nurturance.

During this early phase of development, when a unique attachment is

being formed with the mother, the infant also develops an attachment to their
primary caregiver, whether a father, grandparent, or a provider in a child care
setting. The infant’s emotional and social development flourishes in the
context of attachment. Infants use their senses to develop a sense of the
world and to test the strength of the attachment by sending out signals that
require a response. Mary Ainsworth (1982) identified infants’ social behavior
during the first few months of age; she called Phase 1 the Undiscriminating
Social Responsiveness phase. In this phase infants demonstrate orienting
behaviors such as visual fixation and tracking, rooting, and listening; sucking
and grasping; and signaling behaviors such as smiling and crying.

Four to Eight Months

Infants learn best when they are

alert and calm. Infants’ expressions
of emotion are widened and
becoming more refined. The infant
uses a variety of sounds such as
cooing, wailing, and chuckling and
physical movement such as smiling
and waving arms to express
happiness, fear and frustration.
During the latter half of this phase
of development many infants develop stranger anxiety of people they do not
know or do not see infrequently (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2010). This is also a
period of development in which an infant may exhibit anxiety when separated
from their mother or primary care provider. The infant is beginning to form
the concept that they are separate from others, thus the anxiety that occurs
when separated from the primary attachment figure.

Is Your Baby Afraid of Strangers or Being Too Clingy?

As an infant’s temperament style emerges, it is important to assess the

child’s view of the world based on the behavioral categories: activity level,
rhythmicity (regularity of body functions), distractibility,
approach/withdrawal, adaptability (to new environments), attention span and
persistence, intensity of reaction, threshold of responsiveness (intensity of
stimulation required to evoke a response), and quality of mood. The primary
caregiver then can help the infant to cope with the daily experiences and
stresses of life. Goodness-of-fit through responsive care aids the caregiver in
creating appropriate learning experiences for each infant.

Attachment to the primary caregiver is deepening and becoming stronger.

The caregiver needs to provide the infant consistent, responsive, and
nurturing care. Infants are moving around more, socializing with other
children and adults and learning how to interact with other humans.
Ainsworth (1982) classified the budding social skills during this period of
growth: Phase 2 – Discriminating Social Responsiveness and Phase 3 –
Actively Seeking Proximity and Contact. Phase 2 emerges at around age six
months and is typified by a child’s discrimination of and response to familiar
and unfamiliar people. As stated before, this period of development is
characterized by the onset of stranger anxiety. Phase 3 emerges at about
seven months and is demonstrated in an infant’s increased mobility to be in
proximity to her caregiver using crying, smiling, and babbling to gain the
attention of the attachment figure; to gain control over the movement of the
extremities; and to stay in close contact with the caregiver.

The Strange Situation - Mary Ainsworth

Eight to Twelve Months

As the attachment to the primary caregiver deepens, infants at this stage

are increasingly able to express and communicate their emotions which can
range from delight to anger. When a parent leaves, the infant may crawl to
the door, cry, and/or try to follow the parent. The caregiver is instrumental in
helping to establish routines at the beginning and end of the day that support
the infant and family. “Hello and goodbye” rituals allow the child to
comfortably separate from and then reunite with parents at the end of the
day. The infant will seek out the primary caregiver to keep them in their
sight; as well, stranger anxiety is prevalent and making the infant less fearful
and more secure is one of the jobs of the caregiver.

Infants at this age exhibit increasing

independence and need to control their
environment. They are helping more with self-
feeding and dressing; this is a time for patience
on the part of the caregiver to allow the child to
experiment and try out these new skills.
Persistence in learning how to walk varies in
infants at this stage; persistent infants will try
relentlessly to pull themselves up and walk,
while less persistent children will become
discouraged quickly after a few falls.

Infants at this age are beginning to respond to a verbal “no” or “stop”.

Praise and firm, positive re-direction are more effective strategies with
infants this age; using “no” sparingly helps infants determine the importance
of responding to potentially dangerous and hurtful situations. Increased
mobility allows the infant to interact more with those in their vicinity.
However, infants become more possessive of toys and important people and
may become occasionally “clingy”.

Still Face Experiment: Dr. Edward Tronick

Twelve to Eighteen Months

This stage of development can be considered a transitional period where

mobile infants become toddlers, and due to their increased mobility, a larger
world opens up to them. The mobile infant/toddler hovers between a need for
independence and lingering dependence. Erikson’s (1963) second stage of
development is autonomy versus shame and doubt; the child is gaining new
mental and motor skills and wants to choose and decide on their own. It is
important that the primary caregiver allows increased reasonable free choice
and does not shame the child or make the child doubt their capabilities. This
increased sense of accomplishment enhances the child’s feelings of self-worth
– a quality that will carry into adulthood.

Mobile infants/toddlers at this

stage of development actively explore
their independence as they learn how
to respond appropriately to the
feelings of others. They also are
learning to gain better control over
their own emotions, however their
emotions may overwhelm them, and
their frustration may culminate in
temper tantrums. Mobile
infants/toddlers at this age vacillate
between wanting to be “big” and
wanting to stay “little” at the same
time. In communicating their need for
increased independence, toddlers may
convey negativism by using the word “no” a great deal. Responsive, caring
education and care providers understand that children want to practice new
skills, do things themselves, and make their own decisions. At the same time,
educators need to help children distinguish between right and wrong while
accepting each child as a valuable person. Giving mobile infants/ toddlers
authentic choices, determining and removing the cause of the tantrum, and
providing play props for the child to act out their fears and frustration are all
strategies that responsive educators use to guide children to increased self-
regulation.

Children at this stage are egocentric, seeing the world from their own
perspective. As the concept of object permanence develops, children are able
to distinguish between themselves and their play objects as well as other
people. Mobile infants/toddlers begin to develop self-image at this stage;
acceptance of the child is subsumed and becomes part of the child’s sense of
himself.

The mobile infants/toddler may accept people to varying degrees; the child
may be shy with some people, particularly those with whom they have
infrequent contact. It is important that the child is not forced to interact with
everyone. Again, the responsive educator will provide a secure base of
attachment and will allow the child to regulate their own distance from, and
degree of interaction with strangers.

Eighteen to Twenty-Four Months

Toddlers are primarily concerned with understanding who they

are; identity becomes a major principle of development. Much of toddlers’
drive is tied to their desire for independence and control. Educators can
support toddlers to find appropriate ways to assert themselves, by
introducing social guidelines, and providing them with choices (Copple &
Bredekamp, 2009).

Toddlers at this stage of development continue to display intense

emotions through their behavior. Their emotions swing back and forth from
moments of absolutely delighted laughter to moments of shrieking
displeasure or withdrawal. The responsive educator needs to provide
nonverbal and verbal approval of the child as an individual, and of the child’s
socially acceptable behavior. In addition, the educator needs to provide
consistent routines that will support toddlers’ growth in independence and
competency, and consistency of rules and expectations that will serve as a
reminder to the toddler.

Children at this stage continue to build their sense of self and self-worth.
Consistency of feedback and behavior guidelines enables the child to feel
positive self-worth and avoids “mixed messages” of what is acceptable
behavior. At this point, the child is beginning to separate the idea of themself
self as a person from their actions. This concept is reinforced by emphasizing
that the child is still a worthy person, even when they display negative or
angry feelings. If, during the first 24 months of life, the child has enjoyed the
establishment of a strong attachment to parents and the primary caregiver,
the toddler can begin to successfully separate and begin to act more like a
separate social being (Caplan & Caplan, 1980). Children begin to establish
relationships with others, and consequently, they are honing their skills
recognizing others’ feelings and understanding others’ perspectives (Swim &
Watson, 2011).
 Although toddlers at this stage of development are beginning to consider
others’ points of views, the child continues to be egocentric and can easily
misinterpret the intent of other children. The toddler still clings selfishly to
her belongings and toys, being hesitant to share. The responsive educator
helps a child to identify and verbalize her own feelings as well as the feelings
of other children. Providing enough materials and equipment may encourage
sharing but will not require it until the child is ready.

Children’s fantasies and fears may increase in number and deepen in

intensity during this period of development. As a child’s imagination and
experience expands, so does the child’s level of stress due to negative
fantasies and fears. Listening to the child, validating his fears, and reassuring
the child are strategies the care provider can utilize. Comforting and
reassuring the child of his safety provide a sense of security for the toddler.

Twenty-Four Months to Thirty Months

Children at this age experience an increasing

confidence in their competence and sense of
self. This stage of development represents
another transitional period; at the beginning of
the stage, the 24 month old child has acquired
enough language to better communicate, is able
to attend to activities for longer periods of time,
and enjoys increased independence. However,
the 30 month old child becomes more
demanding and less patient – the “terrible twos
” that typically is the descriptor of children’s
behavior at this juncture of development.
Toddlers at the age may become frustrated,
fluctuating between being affectionate and
being defiant, and using the word “no” a great deal.

The quest for identity development continues through this stage of

development Erikson described as autonomy versus shame and doubt.
Responsive educators need to offer toddlers consistent routines with
flexibility, as well as varied opportunities to explore. Activities that utilize the
child’s senses and maturing physical capabilities provide the opportunity for
increased independence and self-reliance. Play offers children this age a
vehicle to discover themselves and what they may become (NAEYC, 2022).
Through role-playing and social play with peers, children develop emotionally,
socially, and cognitively. Play also provides experiences which enable the
child to appreciate others’ feelings and emotions, and to develop the emotion
of empathy.

Thirty to Thirty-Six Months

At this stage of development toddlers are

becoming more adept at expressing their
emotions in socially acceptable ways, yet
they continue to express negativity as a way
to declare their independence This intense
display of emotions shows itself in classroom
work as well as social play. Children are keen
learners, enjoying hours of exploration and discovery which reinforce their
desire for independence. This is a stage of development where children build
persistence in their play and work; using children’s interests to develop
curriculum that engages and motivates them is part of the early childhood
educator’s job.

0 to 5 in 30 Minutes! Toddler Independence

As toddlers approach age 3, generally, their emotions become more

controlled and less resistant. They become more responsible and caring;
often, this increased pro-social behavior can be used by the educator in
curriculum planning. Completing classroom chores, helping peers, and sharing
materials all provide opportunities for building social competence. Children
this age enjoy control over their personal possessions, yet they are more
amenable to sharing, taking turns, and engaging in cooperative play. Caring
and responsive educators teach children positive pro-social behaviors through
daily modeling of empathy, respect, concern, and nurturance toward others.

Chapter 7 - Section 6
Cognitive and Language Development

Cognitive development encompasses the way children think, develop

understanding of the world around them, and use their knowledge to solve
problems. Current theories of learning claim that children construct
knowledge through their experiences in the world (Piaget, 1954). In addition,
they learn through the scaffolding of information and experience provided by
adults (Vygotsky, 1978). Theory also asserts that infants are born with basic
cognitive systems that predispose them to be keen on learning about things
that ensure their survival – numbers, literacy, adaptability to the environment
for example (Spelke & Kinzler, 2007).

Two aspects of emotional

development are vital in a child’s
ability to pay attention to the world
to foster his cognitive growth: self-
regulation and an attachment
relationship to a primary caregiver.
Self-regulation helps a child control
her actions, and maintain alertness
to people and activity. An
attachment relationship provides a sense of security that guarantees the
child safety as they venture out to explore the world.

Newborns use all their senses to learn about their world. Their ability to
focus on and explore objects and people increases as their grasp and visual
acuity develops. Mobile infants show an increased ability to use tools, act
with intention, and understand the concept of cause and effect (Dodge,
Rudick, Berke & Dumbro, 2006). They begin to categorize information and
objects on their world. Toddlers’ ability to remember in addition to increased
language skills allows them to separate and explore their world. As their
attention span improves, toddlers persist in investigation and problem-
solving.

Language acquisition is one of children’s greatest accomplishments during

the first 36 months of life. Throughout the first three years, infants and
toddlers learn to make the sounds of their language, how to combine the
sounds into words, and the words into sentences. The child will acquire a
working vocabulary of hundreds of words by communicating with the adults in
their world. The child will also learn the rules of the language through
frequent and nurturing conversations with adults. The quantity and
significance of this vocabulary acquisition is wholly mediated by the adults
and opportunities the adults provide in the child’s life.

Infants are born with a predisposition to pay

attention to language and the people around
them. Newborns begin by communicating their
needs through gestures, facial and body
expressions, and crying, to communication
through verbal means or sign language. Mobile
infants understand more than they can
verbalize. They point to objects that have been
named, use gestures, make sounds, and begin
to utter single words such as mama or ball.
Toddlers enjoy the picture book reading that
was begun when they were infants; they enjoy more complex stories. They
are beginning to put two words together such as “me do”; this skill will
increase during ages 2 to 3 as the toddler’s vocabulary increases
dramatically. Receptive vocabulary remains larger than the expressive
vocabulary.

Birth to Four Months

 Much has been written about the cognitive growth and brain development
of infants and toddlers; the importance of the education and care young
children receive cannot be overstated. Healy (2004) expresses it best:

Amazingly, although the number of cells actually decreases, brain weight can
double during the first year of life. As neurons respond to stimuli seen, heard,
felt, or tasted, they fire off messages that build new physical connections to
neighboring cells….During the first six months after birth, they become
extremely active as sensory messages bombard the infant brain, which must
learn to receive them and then pass them from one area to another….Synaptic
connections are strengthened by repeated use; if they fail to connect, they
die off….Every response to sights, sounds, feelings, smells, and tastes makes
more connections. (pp. 17-20)

The frequency and quality of interactions stimulates all the senses of the
infant, building important synaptic connections.

Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage frames the cognitive growth in the first four
months of life. Sub-stage 1 of this stage is reflexive behavior; the newborn
uses his senses to first react to, and then search his environment. In sub-
stage 2 the previously independently working senses begin to coordinate and
work together (e.g., eye-hand coordination). Newborns enjoy looking at faces,
particularly female faces (Ramsey, Langlois, & Marti, 2005). During this
period of development infants should be in environments that stimulate their
senses – mobiles, music, pictures of faces, rattles. Objects should be placed in
the range of the infant’s vision and objects such as rattles should be placed in
her hands.

Crying is the major means of communication during

early infancy. As they develop, their crying takes on
differing vocalizations depending on the need being
communicated – hunger, discomfort, sensory overload,
etc. Immediate and consistent response to the infant,
and attending to the infant’s needs are of prime
importance. Around 10 weeks of age socializing
language – cooing and laughter – begin. These vocalizations begin to build the
physical structures that produce speech. This is a time when the primary
caregiver should use every opportunity to talk and sing to the infant, and
carry on running conversations. A verbal “dance” is established between the
infant and adult as the infant mirrors the adult mouth movements and facial
expressions.

Nourishing Language Development in Early Childhood

Four to Eight Months

The infant at this stage – the Reproduction and Coordination sub-stages of

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage – is building brain synapses through repetition of
activities that attract him. The infant is learning cause and effect as he or she
hits the crib activity center and hears the music play. The infant visually
follows objects that appear and begin to disappear. Infants are beginning to
realize that objects are entities separate from their bodies.

The neural pathways that are being

created play a significant role in
infants’ development of speech
sounds. The cooing that began in the
first four months continues to be
refined. Cooing is soon accompanied
by babbling. Cooing sounds are
extended vowel sounds like ahhh,
ooo, and eee. During cooing infants
begin to manipulate their mouths and
tongues, building coordination for
later speech production. Babbling is
rudimentary playing with sounds – primarily some of the “hard” consonant
sounds (b, t, m). Babbling then progresses to consonant-vowel strings such
as ba-ba-ba. Babbling is a social event in which infants listen to sounds
around them and imitate those sounds and the conversations adults have
with them. Intensity, volume, rhythm, and pitch begin to emerge at this stage
(Otto, 2018).

Eight to Twelve Months

Mobile infants are in the Coordination sub-stage of the Sensorimotor

stage. The infant can better manipulate objects to more thoroughly explore
using their senses. Object permanence is a major developmental milestone
during this stage. The mobile infant remembers people, objects, and events
for longer periods of time, and will search for objects that disappear. Infants
are developing symbolic representation by making a mental picture of the
object, person, or past event. Cause and effect is a deepening concept and at
the same time imitation becomes keener.

Piaget - Stage 1 - Sensorimotor, Object Permanence

The babbling the infant has been engaging in up to this point begins to
take the form of distinguishable words such as “no” and “mama”. The infant
makes conversational sounds that mirror the structure of adult conversation.
In the area of receptive language, the infant is learning frequently heard
nouns and names of objects and people around her, and labeling objects with
these words. Shared book readings afford the opportunity for basic concepts
to be reinforced and new vocabulary to be built through questioning and
labeling of objects in the pictures.

Twelve to Eighteen Months

Children at this developmental stage are in Piaget’s sub-stage 5 – the

Experimentation stage – of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development.
In this experimentation stage the child is consolidating much of the
accumulated knowledge and with challenging but achievable opportunities, is
developing the skill of problem-solving (Healy, 2004). Exploration is pursued
through trial and error, using a rudimentary scientific method of
hypothesizing, testing and concluding. Mobile infants are also learning more
about cause and effect as they explore and experiment with the materials in
their environment.

Children this age are relying more and more on their burgeoning
vocabulary as opposed to their grunts and babbling. Due to their still limited
vocabulary, children this age tend to overgeneralize so that dada may mean
all men and dog stands for all four-legged animals. Specific vocabulary is built
through constant conversation and oral labeling of objects and through
storybook reading. Emergent literacy building is fostered by providing books;
writing and art materials; space; modeling of
reading, writing and creating; and
opportunity to “dabble” in emergent literacy
practice (Otto, 2018).

Eighteen to Twenty-Four Months

This developmental stage is a transitional

stage where toddlers are moving from the
sensorimotor stage to the preoperational
stage – a stage during which the child begins
to form ideas based on his perceptions and shows an increased ability to
think symbolically and conceptually as evidenced in his increased use of
imaginative play and language. The toddler is able to use their mental
capacities to think through and solve problems instead of having to
manipulate objects, using trial and error. A toddler’s memory skills are being
refined, allowing one to follow one- and two-step directions. The child’s
mental representation skills are expanding so that they can begin to play
symbolically, using props to re-play experiences embedded in her memory.
Role-playing becomes important as both a way to experiment with adult roles
and to work out emotions.

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

Vocabulary acquisition continues to be fast-paced, particularly for children

who are fortunate to have consistent, prolific, and grammatically correct adult
modeling of language (Hart & Risley, 1995). Toddlers use language for two
purposes: 1) to name, describe and make remarks and, 2) to express desires
and to reject (Otto 2018). Children at this developmental stage
produce telegraphic speech – a sequence of words that conveys a thought
using only the most important key words. Shared readings continue to
provide opportunities for cognitive growth and emergent literacy. Writing is
represented by scribbles that children may be able to “read back” to adults.

Twenty-Four Months to Thirty Months

Toddlers at this age are firmly in the pre-operational stage where children
use mental operations to construct and organize knowledge into categorized
schema files. Mental operations are consolidating so that children are able to
mentally manipulate events and objects (Piaget, 1952). Symbolic play is
becoming more abstract at this stage; for example, the child may substitute a
block for a play phone. Children at this stage are more capable when using
open-ended materials to develop their imagination and creativity. Mental
images are embedded through the child’s use of private speech (Vygotsky,
1987) allowing the child to self-regulate and guide their own activity.

Toddlers at this stage of

development begin to
construct sentences that
include function words such
as the, in, and to. They are
moving into producing 3-
and 4-word sentences that
are predominantly
structured in a subject-verb-
direct object sentence pattern. Toddlers make some linguistic mistakes, but
these are developmentally appropriate mistakes that show us that toddlers
are beginning to apply some grammatical rules they have synthesized as a
result of their exposure to language. Often they overgeneralize by applying
the same rule to all words of the same parts of speech (e.g., mouse-mouses)
or they undergeneralize a word and do not use it for all the cases to which it
applies (e.g., a dog is only a dog if it is black – if it is white, children think it is
named something else). Toddlers are beginning to understand and utilize
prosody – intonation and stress that express their ideas – “that boy” means
something different than “that boy” (Swim & Watson, 2011).

Shared readings should include stories with more sophisticated and

repetitive language that supports more highly-developed vocabulary and oral
language. Children are more aware of environmental print and need increased
access to writing materials, easels, chalkboards and whiteboards. Toddlers’
scribbling is more developed and may contain early picture-writing.

Thirty to Thirty-Six Months

As children reach their third birthdays, the cognitive

and language growth in the first thirty-six months is
nothing short of amazing! Children have evolved into
curious problem-solvers who persistently manipulate,
question, hypothesize, and test. Piaget (1952) stated that children are
learning three different categories of knowledge: physical knowledge, social-
arbitrary knowledge, and logico-mathematical knowledge. Physical knowledge
includes understanding the properties of objects (e.g., attributes such as size
and shape) as well as understanding the effects of human interaction with
objects (e.g., dropping, pushing, squeezing, etc. the object). Social-arbitrary
knowledge includes forms of communication such as learning vocabulary,
grammatical rules and information that allows children to function in their
social world (DeVries, 2000). Logico-mathematical knowledge includes
attributes of objects such as number, time, quantity, and size. Toddlers
approaching their third birthdays will engage in more content- bound
activities – mathematical, science-based, and literacy – that are integrated
across the content areas (e.g., reading a book about shapes, making patterns
of shapes, and making creative artwork out of shapes).

Counting the Benefits of Teaching Math to 3-year olds

Children continue to
accumulate vocabulary, to
refine their grammatical
correctness and prosody
skills, and to increase the
length and accuracy of
their sentences. The
thirty-six month
accumulation of story
sharing experience,
writing endeavors and
artwork, as well as the introduction to social, dramatic play all provide
opportunities for children to build sound language and emergent literacy
skills. Much of children’s knowledge at this stage is built through direct, adult
modeling. Adults model how book reading requires a prosodic voice; how
more complex sentences are structured; the shades of meaning in vocabulary;
and the use of print in writing names, lists, and sentences (Otto, 2018).

Chapter 7 - Section 7
Physical Development

Motor development occupies much of a young child’s effort and time; the
infant and toddler strive to move their bodies, stabilize their body
positioning, and reach and hold objects to look at and mouth. Motor
development is not a simple, linear progression of maturation, but is instead,
a complex, ongoing process of learning (Adolph, 2008). While the initial
movements after birth are reflexive, the process of learning quickly becomes
the motivating force in motor development. Each new skill – whether it is
walking, grasping, or sitting – is refined by repetition, adjustment, and
merging previous achievements with new goals.

Physical Development Milestones

The reflexive movements of newborns protect them from harm, help them
find food, and keep their head, arms, trunk, and legs controlled. As the infant
grows, the motor skills combine to create a dynamic and efficient system. For
example, as a 4-month old is gaining head and neck control, they will enjoy
“tummy time” where they may look around to explore the environment and
move to reaching for objects within reach. Esther Thelen (2000) describes
motor development as systematic problem solving of the conflict between a
child’s goals and the constraints of their body structure. The young child is
constantly attempting to move, having to adjust for their changing body
weight, postures, and proportions.

Motor Development - Baby Body Sense (Esther Thelen)

 Physical development is cephalocaudal, meaning that voluntary muscle
control begins at the head and neck, progressing to the chest, trunk and
extremities. Development is also proximal-distal, commencing at the midline
and progressing outward and downward. Muscle control begins with large
muscle sets, proceeding to small muscle sets (Wittmer & Petersen, 2010). The
areas of motor development that are acquired during the first three years are
locomotion, stability, and manipulation. Locomotion is crawling, walking, and
running; stability is sitting and standing upright; and manipulation includes
reaching, grasping, and releasing (Swim & Watson, 2011).

Birth to 4 Months

During the four months of this

stage of development, infants
rapidly progress from reflexive
movements such as rooting –
searching for the nipple –
and sucking, to increased muscular
control of most of their body.
The Moro reflex – startle reflex – is
a response to a loud sound or the sense of falling. The newborn throws back
their head, flails their arms and legs and then pulls them back in toward their
body. The tonic neck reflex causes the infant’s arms to move in concert with
his head movement when lying on his back (supine position). When the baby’s
head turns to the right, their right arm thrusts out and their left raises up; the
opposite happens when the infant turns their head to the left. This reflex
disappears when the infant begins to clasp their hands together, at the
midline. The palmar grasp reflex allows the infant to close their fingers
around an object that is in their palm such as an adult’s finger or a toy.

During this stage of development, the infant moves from these reflexive
movements to increased muscular control. By the time the infant reaches four
months of age, they are holding their head, shoulders and chest up when
placed on their tummy; may enjoy sitting up with arm or pillow support; and
is rolling from stomach to back. The infant is grasping toward toys placed
within reach, opening and closing their hands as well as playing with their
hands, grasping objects, and refining their eye-hand coordination when
reaching for an object.

Primitive Reflexes

Four to Eight Months

The infant’s movements are becoming

more coordinated; infants can grasp and
move objects intentionally and roll over,
are developing muscular strength that
allows them to sit up for longer periods of
time, and may be creeping. By the end of
this stage, infants are able to stand and
take steps with support. The infant’s
manipulation skills involve the coordination of the entire arm from shoulder to
fingers as well as acuity of eye-hand coordination to grasp objects. The child
is now able to shift objects from hand to hand and is beginning to experiment
and refine the pincer grasp which utilizes the thumb and forefinger. Infants
this age begin to manipulate finger food, as solid foods are introduced.

During this four month stage of development, the infant’s locomotion skills
advance from rolling from stomach to back, to pulling to a standing position
and taking steps. In between, they will roll from back to stomach, pull their
body up and balance on their arms and legs, learn to creep, and then to crawl.
The infant’s head, neck, and trunk muscular control is developing so that the
infant holds their head independently and can sit for longer periods of time,
eventually pushing up to a sitting position.

Infants usually begin teething during this stage of development and may
need special comforting through their pain and discomfort. As their tongue
and swallowing muscles mature, infants are able to move to solid food
(pureed food) fed with a spoon. Mealtime is becoming more of a social
occasion that is important for future social development.

Eight to Twelve Months

During this stage of development, standing with support soon becomes

traveling, as the mobile infant takes a few cautious steps along the edge of a
table. All this practice is leading up to the mobile infant taking the first steps
without support. The first attempts at walking are wobbly and weaving, with
several falls, but with persistence, continued attempts, and strengthened
muscles and coordination, the mobile infant becomes much more adept at
walking.
 The mobile infant is refining their pincer grasp and eye-hand coordination
by using the thumb and forefinger as well as the thumb and two fingers. they
also are able to bring their hands together in front when clapping and playing
patty cake. The mobile infant is able to use both of their hands in a
coordinated way when manipulating objects. These enhanced fine motor skills
aid the mobile infant in feeding finger foods and by using utensils. As infants
approach their first birthday, infants hold their own bottles and move from
solely bottle feeding to using a cup with a cover. Some mobile infants are
beginning to hold and use writing utensils such as fat crayons and markers.

Baby Playing Patty Cake

Twelve to Eighteen Months

This stage of development is a transitional period where mobile infants

enjoy an expanding world and with increased stability, enter toddlerhood.
These young children are becoming steadier in their gait as they make the
necessary adjustments based on their changing center of gravity. Even falling
is a valuable experience as the child learns persistence (Joh & Adolph, 2006).
Often, the child who had just begun to walk prefers going back to crawling
because they can get from one place to another faster. The budding toddler is
showing increased curiosity about ascending and descending stairs, first by
crawling and later by climbing and holding onto a handrail.

The young child in this developmental stage is honing more exacting fine
motor skills and is beginning to prefer one hand over the other, although
handedness is not finalized at this point. Children are using their “pointer
finger” effectively as they look at storybooks and point to pictures and they
are deftly using writing materials to scribble. They are beginning to show
interest in dressing and undressing by buttoning, unbuttoning, zipping, and
unzipping. Throwing and rolling balls are favorite activities for toddlers this
age, although much of this action is not at intended targets.

Eighteen to Twenty-Four Months

 Once toddlers have mastered those first
months of unsteady walking, they become much
more serious about moving – hopping, jumping,
skipping, and leaping. The ability to toddle from
place to place frees up the child’s hands to carry
things and to push and pull toys. Toddlers are able
to climb up and down stairs holding the handrail,
yet they are not alternating their feet. Kicking
balls, pedaling tricycles, and throwing at intended
targets are all skills that the toddler becomes more
proficient at by the end of this developmental
stage.
Baby on the Move: Walking

Babies and Toddlers Cruising & Walking

Young children’s strengthening fine motor skills are demonstrated in

increased control of their fingers and wrist movements. Toddlers are more
able to grasp and release objects and to turn their wrist to turn objects. Due
to the fact they are showing more interest and independence in dressing and
undressing, it is important to provide opportunities to zip, unzip, button, and
unbutton. Hand dominance is beginning to be established as a toddler may
prefer one hand over the other; occasionally, the toddler may use the non-
dominant hand for specific tasks, such as throwing a ball. It is important that
the educator allows the child to use the hand they prefer and does not try to
change the handedness of the child.

Twenty-Four Months to Thirty Months

Two year olds are active, energetic participants in all their large muscle
pursuits – bending, walking, running, jumping, climbing, hopping, kicking, and
throwing. Toddlers’ increased stability and flexibility allow them to engage in
all these activities with greater intensity and curiosity (Adolph, 2008). This
developmental stage offers the opportunity for consolidation of both large
muscle coordination and fine motor accuracy.

Simply Parenting - Playing with your Two Year Old

Toddlers begin to become more skilled

with art activities such as bead threading,
large pegboards, scissor-cutting, drawing,
and painting. In dramatic play, toddlers
are using their new accomplishments to
dress in play clothes, pour from pitchers
during tea parties, and build blocks. With
maturing eye-hand coordination, children
are able to grasp, twist, and manipulate
objects. They enjoy fitting pieces of
objects together and taking them apart;
shape-sorters and puzzles with knobs are popular items for children this age.
Toddlers are using spoons to feed themselves with increasing expertise and
are experimenting with manipulating forks.

The increased competence in self-help skills often leads to an interest in

toilet learning. Educators can introduce the potty chair and encourage the
child to use the chair. Positive feedback and gentleness are necessary at this
stage of development. Much of the readiness for toilet learning involves the
child’s awareness of the sensations of the sphincter muscles, the ability to
control the muscles and then to relax the muscles for elimination. This large
muscle control often begins at around 24 months, but it may take many
children until ages three or four to have full control of bowel movements and
urination (American Psychiatric Association, 2022).

Thirty to Thirty-Six Months

 The first thirty-six months of
physical growth is a time of
amazing development in the
young child! As the child
approaches their third birthday,
the toddler is stable when
running and walking forward
and backward. The child is
jumping, hopping, dancing, and
balancing, as well as alternating
their feet when going up stairs. In the area of fine motor skills, they are able
to put their clothes on, often with zippering, snapping, and buttoning them.
Children enjoy art projects not only to demonstrate their fine motor
accomplishments but also to express their emerging creativity. Handedness is
established, and most activities are accomplished with the dominant hand.

Using their healthy muscles and brains, babies make extraordinary

progress in their capability to use initially their bodies’ reflexes to process
information and then mature in their ability to process, move toward, and
manipulate objects. Infants make amazing passage from using reflexive
movements to becoming toddlers demonstrating intentional and purposeful
hopping, jumping, buttoning, and scribbling.

Responsive, Relationship-based Planning

Curriculum planning requires the teacher to perceptively observe children,

sensitively document their learning, and utilize the data for planning
supportive interactions and environments for children. The needs and
interests of the children and their families must underpin the planning
process. An effective program does not begin with an activity plan, but
instead with the observation of the individual child’s development across all
learning domains. For instance, when a child is beginning to walk around
furniture in anticipation of walking independently, the teacher will document
the gains the child can make socially, emotionally, cognitively as well as
physically, by learning to ambulate. Once the child is walking, the teacher will
scaffold the child’s ability to carry objects, greet other children, join into play
and will verbally label objects the child encounters. Wittmer and Petersen
(2010) emphasize a 3 R approach to responsive, relationship-based curriculum
planning for infants and toddlers. Respect – value what the child is trying to
do and how the child feels. Admire the child’s feelings, goals, and how the
child is learning. Reflect – observe, think, and feel. How is the child showing
you how he or she feels? What are the child’s goals? What is the child
learning? How is the child trying to learn it? What does the child need? Relate
– be responsive by observing with interest, interacting, communicating,
sharing feelings, or changing the physical environment (p. 288).

Ensuring that infants and toddlers feel safe, secure, and nurtured is one of
the most important roles of the teacher. Responsive teachers intentionally
plan for and scaffold children’s emotional, social, cognitive, language, and
physical development. Additionally, teachers develop strong, positive
relationships with families to build a support system that meets all the needs
of infants and toddlers. These powerful relationships are built through mutual
respect and positive dialogue.

Chapter 7 - Section 8
Early Intervention Services

Since 1986, federal law providing special education services for 3-21 year
olds in the United States also provides early invention for infants and
toddlers. Part C of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
provides services designed to:

 Strengthen the capacity of families to meet their child’s needs

 Enhance the development of infants and toddlers with disabilities
 Reduce educational costs by decreasing the need for special
education through early intervention
 Minimize the possibility of institutionalization and maximize
independent living (NECTAC, 2005)
 Part C requires each state to determine its own criteria for eligibility and
to define “developmental delay”. However, states are required to provide
services to children who have conditions deemed a risk. This includes:

Chromosomal abnormalities; genetic or congenital disorders; severe

sensory impairments, including hearing and vision; inborn errors of
metabolism; disorders reflecting disturbance of the nervous system;
congenital infections; disorders secondary to exposure of toxic substances,
including fetal alcohol syndrome; and severe attachment disorders. Many
states add to this list biological conditions that increase the likelihood of, but
do not necessarily result in, developmental delay. These would include low
birth weight, intraventricular hemorrhage at birth, chronic lung disease, and
failure to thrive. (Wittmer & Petersen, 2010, p.363)

If a child is eligible for services, the child goes through a developmental

evaluation administered by an early intervention team. The family and the
team then develop an Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) that states the
goals for development and the services and supports needed to be successful.
The IFSP takes into serious consideration the strengths, needs, and priorities
of the family as well as the child.
 It is incumbent upon professionals to always use person-first language –
the child is a person first and the disability is only a part of who that child is.
Teachers need to be informed about the nature of disabilities the infants and
toddlers in their classrooms may need to have accommodated, and have the
opportunity to have their questions answered and their concerns taken
seriously. Teachers will incorporate many strategies to adapt materials and
activities for their successful use by infants and toddlers with disabilities. The
greatest indicator for success is that a teacher is willing to accept, and is
welcoming to, children with disabilities and their families.