Chapter 5 - Section 1

An Introduction to High-Quality
Early Childhood Programs

Thinking Ahead

1. Why is there an increasing demand for quality early childhood education programs?
2. How does the Montessori approach provide for the needs of young children?
3. How does the Waldorf approach provide for the needs of young children?
4. How does the Head Start program provide for the needs of young children?
5. How does the High/Scope program provide for the needs of young children?
6. How does the Creative Curriculum program provide for the needs of young children?
7. How does the Project Approach provide for the needs of young children?
8. How do Forest Schools provide for the needs of young children?

An early childhood program provides a structure of care and education for children ages birth to 8 years
old. For many years, the topics of early childhood education and care were regarded as separate entities.
However, in recent years the early childhood community has attempted to offer a more holistic definition
of appropriate early childhood settings. The term “educare” has emerged, its definition melding the
components of education and care into an inextricable relationship. “Adequate care involves providing
quality cognitive stimulation, rich language environments, and the facilitation of social, emotional, and
motor development. Likewise, adequate education for young children can occur only in the context of
good physical care and of warm affective relationships” (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001, p. 25).

Across the spectrum of high-quality educare programs is the commonality of developmentally

appropriate practice, yet these programs often differ greatly in their approach to education and
curriculum. This is due in part to the reality that DAP is a philosophy and approach to working with
children; it is not a curriculum (NAEYC, 2022). While all programs share a collective allegiance to the core
principles of developmentally appropriate practice, the actual programs vary across curriculum models.

Some of these early childhood programs may be federally funded free programs, with Head Start being
an example, or may be funded by nonprofit or for-profit agencies who charge tuition. Early childhood
programs may be located in public school systems or may be housed in childcare centers, agencies, places
of worship, etc. Unlike many other countries such as Sweden, Australia, and France where educare
programs for preschoolers are offered free and universally to all children, the United States’ model has
no true uniformity. The U.S. programs vary in availability, eligibility requirements, program structure,
curriculum, and quality.

Quality in early childhood care and education refers to the

excellence of the program. Excellence is often predicated on
the program exceeding minimum standards and offering
more than just ordinary care. High-quality programs benefit
children and their families, while poor-quality programs are
disadvantageous to children’s development and learning.
Poor-quality programs often suffer from lack of resources,
sub-standard conditions, under-prepared professionals, and
insufficient staffing. High-quality programs, on the other
hand, offer children a variety of benefits which lead to
“higher levels of language development, greater social
competence, a better ability to regulate their behavior, and
better academic performance than do their peers in poor-
quality programs” (Kostelnick, Soderman, & Whiren, 2011, p.11).

So what are some of the components of high-quality programs? The National Institute for Early
Education Research (NIEER, 2021) publishes an annual report analyzing eight indicators of quality in early
childhood programs:
  The teacher holds a Bachelor’s Degree and focused training in early childhood education
 The teacher assistant has a Child Development Associate (CDA) credential or higher
 The staff receives at least 15 hours of in-service training each year
 The curriculum is aligned to the early learning standards set by each state
 Class size is capped at 20 with a teacher-to-child ratio of 1:10 or better
 Screenings and referrals are made for intervention programs
 Children receive at least one meal daily
 Frequent on-site visits are used to evaluate the program

Other research (Biddle & Berliner, 2002) adds to the list of factors which make early childhood
programs high-quality:

 Educators are well prepared and well compensated

 Staffing is stable
 Warm, attentive relationships are established between adults and children
 Environments are safe and healthy
 Environments are stimulating
 Family engagement is evident
 There are connections to comprehensive community services

The National Association for the Education of Young

Children (NAEYC), the nation’s largest organization of early
childhood educators, began accrediting programs in 1985, with the
goal of raising early childhood program quality. Today, NAEYC
accredits over 7,000 early childhood programs serving over 623,000
children from birth through kindergarten (NAEYC, 2022).
This voluntary accreditation system is based on ten standards that
programs must achieve: relationships with children; curriculum;
teaching; assessment of children’s progress; health; teaching staff
competencies, preparation and support; family collaboration; community relationships; physical
environment; and leadership and management. Meeting and maintaining these standards makes it
possible to attain quality of care and education for young children.
 NAEYC Accreditation � The Right Choice for Kids

Any excellent program clearly articulates the goals of the program, the early childhood principles and
practice that sustain the program’s purpose, and the explicit roles of those working in the program. The
program’s philosophy will be visibly apparent in the structure, materials, activities, and relationships that
make up the daily lives of the children, their families, and the educators. Throughout history, beginning
with Froebel’s kindergarten, early childhood educators have developed high-quality programs for young
children. In this chapter, we will examine some of the most noteworthy programs designed to meet the
needs of children and their families. We will review each program’s purposes, curriculum, teacher role
and how the program meets the needs of children and their families. While no one program can meet the
needs of all children, these programs – Montessori, Reggio Emilia, Waldorf, Head Start, High/Scope,
Creative Curriculum, the Project Approach, and Forest Schools – are widely used in the United States and
around the world. Two of the programs, Montessori and Reggio Emilia originated in Italy while Waldorf
began in Germany and the first Forest School was formed in Demark. High/Scope, Head Start, Creative
Curriculum and the Project Approach all have their roots in the United States.

Chapter 5 - Section 2
Montessori

Montessori early childhood education continues

to be a common household phrase in the United
States and around the world, enjoying great
popularity with parents and professionals and
having a significant impact on early childhood
educare. Maria Montessori originally designed her
educational program to meet the needs of
developmentally delayed and impoverished Italian
children who she believed would never fully develop
their intellectual capabilities without an appropriate, structured education. Montessori later went on to
create a curriculum which would meet the needs of all children. Today, there are approximately 20,000
Montessori schools found all over the globe serving children from birth to 18 years old, with more than
5000 schools in the United States.
 Nurturing the Love of Learning: Montessori Education for the Preschool Years

According to the Montessori Method, the four most important aspects in understanding how children
learn include:

1. The absorbent mind speaks to children’s natural curiosity which enables them to
interact directly with their environment through their senses and to learn before being
formally taught
2. The prepared environment is carefully structured by the teacher to support children’s
exploration and to nurture children’s independence
3. Sensitive periods are phases of time when a child is ready to master specific skills or
concepts that cannot be fully or efficiently mastered at other times
4. Autoeducation is the idea that children are capable of educating themselves if given
large blocks of time to work with self-correcting materials

The Montessori Method

The Absorbent Mind

Montessori believed that children learn through

purposeful work by using their senses to understand their
world. She believed that children, particularly from age 4
to 7 are internally motivated to learn and do not need
external rewards. This inspired her to be concerned with
the environment that children work in, both in the
materials and design.

In order for children to learn by doing and through

repetition, Montessori believed that it was the teacher’s
responsibility to set up the environment for learning,
provide the appropriate materials and then to step away
while children had plenty of time and space in which to explore and experiment. Unlike most of the early
childhood educators before and after her, Montessori dismissed free play as a waste of valuable learning
time and she minimized the value of social interaction for children’s learning (Wolfe, 2000). Children are
supplied with individual mats to work on so as not to be bothered by their peers.

The Prepared Environment

Montessori believed that a prepared

environment best prepares children to do
things independently. Before Montessori,
making materials and furnishings accessible
and child-sized was not a widely accepted
idea; educational spaces up to that point
were adult-oriented and sized. The prepared
environment provides learning experiences
and materials in an organized and
systematic format. Spaces are neat, orderly
and free of clutter, making them
aesthetically pleasing, and meeting children’s need for orderliness in their environment.

The furniture in a Montessori classroom is lightweight and scaled down so that it can be easily moved
and from which children can take and return materials without difficulty (Mooney, 2000). Montessori did
not believe in cluttering up the walls with bright colors and wall adornment that could be distracting and
over-stimulating. Instead, she advocated clean, white spaces where children could hang their work in an
aesthetically pleasing way. Materials are to be clean, in good condition and neatly stored on shelves that
are not overflowing with items.

Clean, Organized Environment with the Best Montessori Curriculum

These truly child-centered spaces allow for children’s freedom to explore materials created for three
different purposes: practical life and motor development, sensory materials to train the senses, and
academic materials to teach literacy and math (Morrison, 2012). All of these activities are taught in a
specified and exacting way. Montessori designed self-correcting materials, emphasizing that there was
only one right way to use each of the materials.

The practical life activities are life skills which include: greeting a visitor, writing a thank you note,
washing and caring for possessions, and self-care skills such as buttoning, zipping and tying. The sensory
materials develop children’s observational skills to build readiness for reading, build cognitive skills such
as sorting and classifying, and encourage readiness for math. The academic materials are exercises in
writing that lead to reading, including sandpaper letters and numbers.

Sensitive Periods

Montessori thought that the sensitive periods begin in infancy allowing the child to absorb the stimuli
and cues which when internalized result in development and learning. Children have absorbent minds
eager to take in, model, and imitate the stimulation to which they are exposed (Montessori, 1966). This
emphasizes the need for accurate and appropriate modeling by caregivers and educators. Emphasis
should also be placed on the importance of the first three years particularly in the development of
language and motor coordination. Development in these two areas enables the consolidation of later
social, physical, cognitive, and emotional growth. Therefore, the early years provide sensitive periods for
optimal learning which provides the framework for future learning.

Infant Toddler Sensitive Periods

Autoeducation
 Montessori believed that children need to care for themselves and
their environment. Montessori warned teachers that children who
are not allowed the independence to take care of themselves will not
learn how to. It is sometimes easier to do things for children, but
that short-term thinking does not help children learn and develop
skills for the long-term. In order for a child’s unique developmental
pathway to be realized, Montessori felt the child needed to be able
to function independently.

Building this self-sufficiency gives children the liberty to self-

select activities, materials and exploration. This self-direction in the
prepared environment maximizes a child’s development while she is
in the sensitive periods of her learning. Montessori believed that
children who are actively engaged in a prepared environment with
freedom of choice in activities will naturally educate themselves.

The Teacher’s Roles and Functions

Teachers in Montessori programs are carefully trained in accredited teacher-training programs

intentionally designed around Montessori’s principles. The teacher, or directress, is the major
educational influence in the child’s life and the teacher must maintain great respect for the rights and
abilities of each child (Follari, 2011). Not interfering with children’s natural exploration is an important
aspect of the teacher’s role: “It is necessary for the teacher to guide the child without letting him feel her
presence too much, so that she may be always ready to supply the desired help, but may never be the
obstacle between the child and his experience” (Montessori, 1967, p.25). The teacher needs to make
children the center of learning, and only serve as “a guide on the side”.

Trevor Eissler "Montessori Madness!" - 321 FastDraw

 Montessori believed that the teacher’s major
roles are to prepare the environment,
demonstrate materials, and observe children.
Preparation of the environment includes ensuring
the learning materials and activities provide an
appropriate learning experience for each child and
the freedom of choice and time to explore.
Demonstration of the materials should be done in
an orderly and sequential manner with plenty of
teacher support. Usually, this demonstration is done through individual or small group instruction using
brief, simple directions. Observation of each child takes place initially and is ongoing, providing valuable
information so the teacher can prepare the best environment for each child. Through teacher observation
and insight, teachers become familiar with each child’s readiness level.

The Montessori method lost favor after the 1920’s due in part to Montessori’s view on play and her
refusal to change any part of the method. However, there was a revival of the Montessori method in the
United States during the 1950’s. In recent years, thousands of Montessori schools have been created,
however, the name “Montessori” is not copyrighted so any school can make the claim they follow the
method. The best way to ensure that a school is a true Montessori school is to check its accreditation.
Two Montessori accrediting organizations, the American Montessori Society (AMS) and the Association
Montessori Internationale (AMI), provide teacher preparation, information, and accreditation
certification.

Chapter 5 - Section 3
Waldorf
 Waldorf education was founded
by Rudolph Steiner, an Austrian
philosopher in 1919, in the wake of
destruction that followed World
War I. Steiner devoted his life to the
exploration of spirituality and
human potential. He believed that
there is no limit to human potential
for growth and development and
that potential is only maximized
when the three major components
of self – mind, body and spirit – are fully developed.

Steiner conceived a philosophy called anthroposophy, the study of human wisdom and belief that a
human’s intellectual faculties can be utilized to gain spirituality. Although Waldorf education strives to
educate the whole child – the heart, the hands, and the head – this philosophy is not taught explicitly in
Waldorf schools (Nicholson, 2000). Instead, Waldorf education strives to instill a love of learning in
children, to ensure that children develop as a whole person with all three developmental elements
addressed, and to support a child’s evolution into a free and creative thinker.

Why Waldorf

The first Waldorf school was founded in 1919 to serve the children of employees at the Waldorf-Astoria
cigarette factory in Stuttgart, Germany. The first American Waldorf school was opened in New York City
in 1928. The Waldorf schools operated under four conditions (Follari, 2011, p. 243):

 The school was open to all children regardless of race, class, ethnicity, ability level
 The school was coeducational
 The K-12 curriculum was viewed as a unified, complete program
 The teachers bore the primary responsibility for control of the administration of the
school, with minimal outside interference

The Waldorf school movement has spread throughout the world and is one of the largest independent
school organizations in the world. As of 2022, there were over 1200 independent schools and 19,000
kindergartens worldwide in over 60 countries. There are countless public schools, homeschooling
environments, and charter schools who use methods that are foundational to Waldorf education.

Steiner believed that children develop through 3 distinct stages:

 Early childhood (birth to 7 years old)

 Middle childhood (7-14 years old)
 Adolescence (14-21 years old)

For the purpose of this text, we will look at the early childhood and middle childhood stages.

Early Childhood

This stage of development ranges

from infancy to the time when the
child has all of his adult teeth. Steiner
believed that during this stage the
environment of children and the
people in it hold the greatest influence
on children’s development. The
relationships the child builds with
others during this stage provide the
protection and attachment the child
needs as well as the opportunity for cognitive, social-emotional, motor, and language development.

Waldorf Early Childhood

 Steiner believed that during this stage children need to build their physical bodies and imaginations.
Children are provided with daily, long periods of outdoor play to exercise both their bodies and curiosities
and to develop spiritually in concert with nature. Foods that children consume are nutritious, organic and
often grown in the school garden. Children use natural materials such as wood, cloth, and plants.

Unlike Montessori, Steiner believed that creative and fantasy play should occupy a large part of the
child’s school day. Appropriate play is self-initiated with open-ended materials made out of natural
materials – wood blocks, yarns, scarves, household items, sculpting materials, and dress up clothes.
There are long, uninterrupted blocks of time and plentiful open-ended materials to engage children in
play. Construction, pretend play, knitting, cooking, sculpting, and gardening, are among the self-
initiated activities in the Waldorf school day.

Denver Waldorf School Early Childhood Curriculum

Steiner resisted pushing children into early academic instruction, as he believed that learning is a
lifelong process and building a strong, healthy body and creative mind provides the firm foundation for
later learning (Follari, 2011). There is no formal academic instruction in the early childhood classrooms;
early literacy experiences include oral storytelling by teachers and children and fine motor development
through painting and sculpting. In Waldorf education, formal reading and writing instruction does not
begin until late in second grade or third grade.
 Middle Childhood

Steiner believed that the middle

childhood is a time of deepening
imagination and through the use of
the realm of imagination more
complex cognitive tasks are learned.
Literacy and numeracy skills are
learned in a fully integrated
curriculum that includes art, music,
woodworking, knitting and sewing,
and dance. Students engage in
hands-on activities that make
abstract concepts understandable (Nicholson, 2000). Children engage in a special form of dance
called eurythmy, a form of dance in which body movements parallel musical tones and words.

Eurythmy and Waldorf Education Excerpt from Eurythmy DVD

The middle childhood years offer a time for exploration of academic areas using language,
imagination, and emotions. Teachers offer opportunities for students to use multiple ways of
representing their learning – music, visual art, drama, dance, storytelling, writing, and visual graphic
organizers (Nicholson, 2000).

Teacher Role

The role of the teacher is viewed as particularly important because the teacher serves as a model for
children to imitate. The teacher plays four major roles (Follari, 2011 p. 249):

 Storyteller
 Personification of the parent figures
 Protector of the child’s inherent drives and creativity
 Nurturer of children’s play
 Waldorf: Be a Teacher

The teacher prepares the

classroom environment to make it
home-like with functional
furniture, soft lighting and
aesthetically pleasing artwork.
Materials from nature are collected
and teachers learn how to knit,
weave, sew, and create pictures
using pieces of fluffy colored wools
– a handcraft called felting(Waldorf
Kindergarten Association, 1993). In
assuming the role of teacher as
storyteller, the teacher has to learn many poems, songs and stories to tell and sing.

Another role the teacher must assume is that of precise and purposeful observer. In order to meet the
needs of individual children, knowing each child’s interests, abilities, and needs is of prime importance.
Through careful observation, the teacher gets to know each child individually and is better able to
support each child’s growth and development.

The teacher is the personification of the model parental role – supportive, nurturing, loving, and
vigilant. Daily activities in the Waldorf school imitate daily home life: gardening, woodworking, baking,
and caring for the classroom space (Fenner & Rivers, 1995). The teacher purposefully teaches each of
these skills by first modeling the action by drawing the students in with a song or poem (Follari, 2011).
Teachers model the ideal parental approach in maintaining a gentle, peaceful tone of voice and being a
model of care and thoughtfulness.

Waldorf education contains many beliefs that impact all of early childhood education. Addressing all
domains of the child’s development is respected throughout all of early childhood education as is careful
preparation and maintenance of the environment. Additionally, integrated curriculum and hands-on
learning is a foundational early childhood education belief. Early childhood education has enjoyed the
benefits of the Waldorf education movement envisioned by Rudolf Steiner.
 Chapter 5 - Section 4
Forest Schools
What is Forest School?

Despite the straightforwardness of outdoor schooling, forest schools are a relatively new concept.
Humans have been living and working in, as well as communing with nature since the dawn of time, yet
the idea of the forest school did not emerge until the middle of the 20th Century.

The world’s first school formally called “forest school” was created in Denmark in 1952. Ella Flautau
gathered her own children and the neighborhood children in a nearby forest for daily play and lessons.
Flautau and the neighborhood parents based this first forest school on the Waldorf-Steiner approach
which was play-based and concerned with the education of the whole child (Forest School Association,
2022).

German forest schools – waldkindergarten – first appeared in the 1960’s and became state-supported
in 1993. The typical German forest school is generally a hybrid model; the mornings are spent in the forest
and the afternoon is spent inside. Presently, there are more than 1,500 forest schools in Germany.

In Australia, Bush kindergartens first appeared in 2016. The philosophy of these nature schools is for
children to use the uniqueness of each setting they are in – bush, beach, etc. – to experience learning.

In the United States, the first modern forest school originated in 1996 in California. The idea that
children should spend consistent time in the outdoor environment has gained popularity. There are an
estimated 585 registered forest schools in the U.S., all with varying structures and curriculum.

Nature-based education became increasingly popular during the Covid-19 pandemic of 2020-2022 as a
way for children to flourish in a learning environment with less risk of contracting Covid-19. However, the
benefits of nature-based education go further than the decreased risk of Covid-19 transmission.
According to the Natural Start Alliance integrating nature into early childhood education supports brain
development, improves academic performance, enhances communication skills, minimizes the
symptoms of ADHD, and promotes physical and motor development (Natural Start Alliance, 2022).

Chapter 5 - Section 5
Head Start
 In the 1960’s research emerged that supported the notion that early environments have a profound
influence on young children’s development. The concept of early intervention to negate many of the
effects of poverty received support throughout the civil rights, educational, and sociology communities
(Kagan, 2002). As part of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s “War on Poverty”, the Head Start Program was
conceived and piloted in 1965. Head Start’s purpose was to serve children from low-income households
by providing extensive early childhood education, nutrition and health services, and parent programs.
The main purpose of an entitlement program such as Head Start is to offer an enriched program to
children from lower incomes – the “head start” that could reverse the cycle of poverty, and ensure
children’s readiness for kindergarten.

The 2015 statistics on poverty show an alarming number of American children under the age of 5 –
4,704,000 – live in poverty. The term poverty is defined by income thresholds. One of those designations
is low income which is used to denote families whose income is at or below twice the federal poverty level
(NCCP, 2016). For instance, the 2021 National Poverty Guidelinesindicate that a family of four with an
income of $27,750 is at the poverty level and that a family of four making twice that amount or less would
be considered at the low income level. Thirty-eight percent of American children live in a home of low
income or poverty (NCCP, 2022). Children from homes that experience low income or poverty are more
likely to suffer from inadequate nutrition, insecure housing, abuse and/or neglect, and lack of adequate
health care. Affordable, high-quality childcare is a scarcity for children coming from these homes. Often,
the adults in these children’s lives are working several part-time jobs to make ends meet and are unable
to give their children consistent, nurturing environments which encourage positive social and coping
skills. Increasing children’s social competence is emphasized in Head Start programs.

As public schools entered the prekindergarten arena in the 1990’s, offering many 4-year-olds pre-
school education, Early Head Start Programs serving children prenatal to three years old were begun.
The increased awareness of the importance of early education and care the original Head Start generated
led to the awareness that quality early educare must begin with our youngest and most vulnerable. Early
Head Start was initiated in the mid-1990’s to meet the needs of low-income pregnant women, infants,
and families. Much of the research which emphasized the critical nature of the early years of development
and the need to optimize those early years including prenatal development provided the framework for
Early Head Start. The purpose of the program is to support the emotional, social, physical, and cognitive
development of children; provide parenting education; and help families move toward self-sufficiency
(Morrison, 2012). Early Head Start has taken the lead in the field of infant and toddler education,
emphasizing the necessity for responsive education and care, a holistic approach to supporting all
domains of children’s development, and building strong, respectful relationships with parents.

Today, Early Head Start serves over 23,000 children birth to three years old (NHSA, 2021). In addition,
to Head Start and Early Head Start, programs include Family and Community Partnerships, Migrant and
Seasonal Head Start, and American Indian/Alaska Native Head Start.

In 2019 Head Start and Early Head Start

served approximately 745,000 children
and pregnant women in over 2,800
programs across the United States.
Thirteen percent of the children enrolled
in Head Start are children with
disabilities, well above the national
percentage of 6% of pre-schoolers with
documented disabilities. More than
947,000 families received Family Services
such as mental health care, dental health care, housing assistance, parenting education, smoking
cessation, job education and more (NHSA, 2021).

In 2019, Head Start had a paid staff of 273,000 people and over 1.1 million volunteers, of which
approximately 749,000 are parents (NHSA, 2021). The total 2019 federal funding for Head Start was
$10,028,460,690. Ludwig and Phillips (2007) estimate that for every $1 invested in Head Start, there is a
7-9% annual return on investment (ROI) in the reduced cost of pre-school education, decreased number
of children in special education and remediation programs, fewer grade retentions from Pre-K to grade
12, etc. Even though funding for Early Head Start and Head Start have been slowly increasing, the
majority of children who qualify for these programs are not being serviced.
 Head Start is administered by the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) in the Department of
Health and Human Services. The Department of Education collaborates with the Department of Health
and Human Services to lend support for the expansion and enrichment of Head Start programs. At the
local level, any local public or private nonprofit or local for-profit agency or organization qualifies for
funding to establish a Head Start program (NHSA, 2021).

Head Start Education

Programs

To be eligible for Head Start and Early Head Start services, children must meet age requirements and
families must meet income guidelines. Early Head Start enrolls children birth to three years of age, while
Head Start includes children from three to five years old. Income criterion is based on the poverty
guidelines established annually by the Department of Health and Human Services (US Department of
Health and Human Services, 2012). Eligibility is determined by whether a family income falls below the
sanctioned poverty line. Ninety percent of the children must meet the income eligibility benchmarks,
while the other ten percent of the enrolled children may be from families that earn above the established
poverty level.

For the 48 Contiguous States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands,
Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands:

Sponsor's 125% of HHS Poverty

100% of HHS Poverty Guidelines*
Household Size Guidelines*
For sponsors on active duty in the U.S.
armed forces who are petitioning for For all other sponsors
their spouse or child

2 $18,310 $22,887

3 $23,030 $28,787

4 $27,750 $34,687

5 $32,470 $40,587

6 $37,190 $46,487

7 $41,910 $52,387

8 $46,630 $58,287
 Add $4,720 for each additional Add $5,900 for each additional
person person

SOURCE:Federal Register, Health and Human Services 2022

In 1972, the Head Start program was expanded to include comprehensive educational, health, and
family services for children with disabilities. By law, at least ten percent of the enrollment in Head Start
must include children with disabilities. In actuality, local programs may have more than ten percent of its
enrollment children with disabilities. Research continues to support the positive outcomes for children
with disabilities who gain access to intervention before age 5 and who are included in classrooms with
typically developing peers (Hume, Bellini, & Pratt, 2005).

Migrant and Seasonal Head Start provides services that meet the
unique needs of migrant and seasonal families. Migrant families are
those who move from one geographic location to another to work
in agricultural work. Seasonal families are those who have had a
permanent residence for two years but who travel seasonally to
engage in agricultural work. Migrant and Seasonal Head Start
programs serve infants, toddlers, and pre-school age children by
providing quality educare while their parents are working in the
fields. Programs are center-based and full day to meet the needs of
the parents who work long days.

The American Indian/Alaska Native Head Start program provides children and their families with
health, nutritional, social, educational, and developmental services aimed at promoting school
readiness. The program encourages parental involvement and embraces the rich cultural heritage of
these groups through activities such as dance, language, and artwork.

Standards
 The Head Start Performance Standards provide
the compulsory guidelines that Head Start and Early
Head Start programs are required to implement.
These standards define the objectives and services of
a quality Head Start program, they stipulate the
services that should be provided to both young
children and their families, and they necessitate a
group to monitor and enforce quality standards
(Morrison, 2012). The structure of the Performance
Standards includes seven principles: 1) Child
development, 2) Family development, 3) Community
building, 4) Staff development, 5) Administration
and management, 6) Continuous improvement of
the programs, and 7) Children with disabilities. The
responsibility for the professional development of
the teaching and support staff falls on the shoulders
of the local agencies. The local agency, utilizing the
Head Start Standards, is responsible for creating
programs which meet the unique needs of the
children and families in the agency’s community.

The new 2015 Head Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework replaces the 2010 version that was
heavily literacy-based. The new Framework respects the holistic nature of young children’s development
and learning. The framework is grounded in a comprehensive corpus of research of what children should
know across the domains of Approaches to Learning, Social and Emotional development, Language and
Literacy, Cognition, and Perceptual, Motor and Physical development. The Framework helps adults
better understand how they should be providing learning opportunities that support learning outcomes.

The Early Learning Outcomes Framework is supported by 7 Guiding Principles (NHSA, 2016):

1. Each child is unique and can succeed

2. Learning occurs within the context of relationships
3. Families are children’s first and most important caregivers, teachers, and advocates
4. Children learn best when they are emotionally and physically safe and secure
 5. Areas of development are integrated, and children learn many concepts and skills at the
same time
6. Teaching must be intentional and focused on how children learn and grow
7. Every child has diverse strengths rooted in their family’s culture, background, language,
and beliefs.

The Framework is organized into Domains, Sub-Domains, Goals, Developmental Progressions, and
Indicators. These elements are research-based, comprehensive, inclusive, manageable and measureable.
The Framework combined with teacher knowledge of the content material and understanding of each
child’s cultural background, ensures that children’s unique ways of learning are recognized.

Family Involvement

Parents are respected as the

child’s first teachers and the
family unit is always valued as a
supportive network for the
child. Parents are included in
planning, community outreach,
and programming
decisions. Parents are
encouraged to volunteer in
classrooms and are given
preference for hiring when paid
positions are made available.
Training and informational
sessions are held to enhance
the parents’ abilities to care and advocate for themselves and their children. Through empowerment of
both families and children, Head Start programs endeavor to empower the family unit as a member of
the larger social community (Peth-Pierce, 2000). As services are provided, it is important to respect the
culture of the families and the larger community context in which children live their lives.
 Concerns about Head Start

One of the largest challenges facing federally funded programs is answering the pervasive questions:
Does the Head Start program provide a good return on its large investment? How can the tax-paying
public be assured that this program servicing young children coming from low-income homes achieves
its intended goals?

Cognitive and language development are two areas that are evaluated on an ongoing basis. The 2021
FACES study (USDHHS, 2021) includes data gathered from 2014-2015. The research shows that the large
gap in the literacy and numeracy skills of children entering Head Start programs is narrowed as a result
of attendance in the program. Those children with the most substantial delays made the greatest gains,
particularly in the areas of vocabulary and early writing. English language learners made noteworthy
gains in vocabulary growth. Despite these positive data points, children in Head Start programs still score
below the national average in many areas including literacy skills expected upon kindergarten (USDHHS,
2021).

Social skills and competence is a major goal of Head Start. The research shows that significant
advances were found in children’s social development, reduced hyperactive behavior, and increased
cooperation in the classroom (USDHHS, 2021). Early Head Start data reports gains in parent-child
relationships and attachment, child responsiveness to parents and caregivers, and improvements in
parenting skills (USDHHS, 2021). The importance of positive social skills as a factor in later school success
is a cornerstone of early childhood educare. Head Start and Early Head Start strives to build those social
skills that lay the foundation for pre-schools and elementary school readiness.

Wash-out of the skills learned in

Head Start is a real concern about the
program. The wash-out effect refers
to the reality that many of the positive
gains in early childhood programs
often decrease or “wash-out” by third
grade, with much of the effect
occurring by the end of first grade.
This fading effect may be due to the
fact that kindergartens have many
more children with less adult support,
health and welfare services may not be continued into kindergarten, intervention services may be
discontinued, and many of these low-income children and children in poverty enter some of the poorest
schools (Follari, 2011). However, the FACES report does offer a glimmer of hope in the long term positive
effects of Head Start in the areas of vocabulary, early writing, early math, and social skills that continue
to develop in kindergarten (USDHHS, 2021).

Teacher credentialing for program improvement is an issue addressed periodically by the federal
government. The educational requirement for a Lead Teacher is at least a Bachelor’s Degree, and in some
states a Master’s Degree.

A Teacher Assistant must have at least an Associate’s Degree with a Bachelor’s Degree preferred. The
more 157 rigorous professional requirements reflect Head Start’s and the Department of Health and
Human Services’ commitment to improved program quality and best classroom practice.

The goals of Head Start and Early Head Start programs, created in 1965 and 1994 respectively, were to
close the achievement gap, prepare children to be successful in school settings, and to support families
with education and services. The success of Head Start and Early Head Start in its efforts to fight poverty
and to give every child a leveled playing field for school success endures today.
 Chapter 5 - Section 6
High/Scope

The High/Scope curriculum model was

originated by the late David P. Weikart, the
former president of the High/Scope Educational
Research Foundation. In 1962, Weikart and his
colleagues started the Perry Preschool Project
in Ypsilanti, Michigan to address the persistent
failure of high school students in Ypsilanti’s
poorest neighborhoods. The premise of the
Perry Project was that purposeful,
constructivist early childhood education could
have a lasting positive effect on children’s long-term success in school (Schweinhart, Barnes & Weikart,
1993). During the project, teachers worked with 3- and 4-year old children in a classroom setting, made
weekly home visits, and met in daily staff meetings.

A significant accomplishment of Weikart’s project was a longitudinal study of the participants as well
as a group who did not have the benefit of the Perry Preschool Project through the age of 40. This
landmark study found that in various indicators of the quality of life (e.g. high school graduation, adult
earnings, home ownership, educational attainment, occupation, lifetime arrests), those who
participated in the project’s preschool had much more positive outcomes.

The High/Scope educational model is based on Piaget’s cognitive development theory and Vygotsky’s
theory of sociocultural development. The curriculum emphasizes that children need to be engaged in
active learning, partnering with teachers in building a community of learners. Children actively
participate in choosing and organizing their learning while teachers carefully guide, observe, and
document children’s learning. The curriculum encourages student choice as well as providing teachers
with a framework of sequential learning goals that children need to accomplish.

High/Scope teachers provide an environment enriched with a variety of materials and tools for learning
as well as large blocks of time to experiment, explore and problem-solve. Teachers are guided by a
curriculum of sequenced outcomes that frame the daily learning activities. Five basic principles – active
learning, a consistent daily routine, a richly supplied and carefully arranged classroom environment, a
precisely designed, developmentally appropriate curriculum, and ongoing assessment – shape the
High/Scope program.

Active learning is modeled in the

High/Scope program through supportive
adult-child interactions. Adults scaffold
children’s learning utilizing a variety of
effective strategies – establishing
authentic relationships with children,
sharing control of the learning with
children, reviewing materials and activities
with children, taking a strengths-based
approach to children’s abilities, leading
large- and small group activities, observing and evaluating children’s learning, and adopting a problem-
solving approach.
Introduction to Large-Group Time

Introduction to Small-group Time

Daily routines follow a predictable series of events and activities, providing the security and
consistency young children need. The routine provides children with large blocks of time over which they
have control of their choices for learning. The daily routine is comprised of:

 Small-group time where children meet together and with the teacher to experiment
with new materials and problems using emerging skills
 Large-group time where children and teachers learn through limited direct-instruction,
music and movement, read alouds, and sharing experiences
 Plan-do-review is a process unique to the High/Scope program. Children take 10-15
minutes to plan, organize, and announce what they want to work on that day. Next,
children have approximately an hour to do the activities – usually in learning centers –
the activities they have planned. During this time teachers circulate, using intentional
questioning and comments to promote deeper thinking and to encourage positive
conflict resolution. After the work period, children review what they have accomplished
 during a 10-15 minute debriefing time. This time offers a learning closure time and the
opportunity for developing analysis, language, and social skills
 Outdoor time is approximately 30 minutes every day
 Daily adult planning time occurs before or after children are at school and during rest
times

The classroom environment and

organization of routines and materials
supports children’s learning in the
High/Scope program. Materials are varied,
plentiful, and organized and stored in places
that children can easily access. The classroom
has a meeting space as well as at least five
activity centers which foster independence
and choice and reflect children’s interests.

The High/Scope Curriculum is based on 58 key developmental indicators organized in five content
areas: approaches to learning; language, literacy, and communication; social and emotional
development; physical development, health and well-being; and arts and sciences (High/Scope
Education Research Foundation, 2021). Within each content area specific skills, concepts, and behaviors
are identified as appropriate outcomes for young children. Teachers use the 58 indicators for planning,
designing the learning environment, and assessment of learning.

Assessment data is gathered through daily observations and interactions, and recorded in anecdotal
notes. Teacher observations are structured around the High/Scope Child Observation Record (COR)
which identifies and evaluates children’s progress in key developmental indicators. The COR is a checklist
of 30 developmental outcomes across all the domains of development and learning (social-emotional,
cognitive, physical, and language) that are aligned to the 58 key developmental indicators (Schweinhart,
2003). Assessment data is collected over time and in natural, authentic situations where children are
participating in learning activities and interacting with peers and adults.
 There is also an assessment of the program utilizing a program
assessment tool called the High/Scope Preschool Program Quality
Assessment (PQA). The purpose of the PQA is to “evaluate the quality
of early childhood programs and identify staff training needs”
(High/Scope Education Research Foundation, 2021). The assessment,
using a 5-point scale, rates the program in the areas of learning
environment, daily routine, adult-child interactions, curriculum
planning and assessment, family involvement and family services, staff
development and qualifications, and program management. Data
collection includes observations, interviews of teachers,
administration, and children.

High/Scope also offers programming for infants and toddlers. The infant and toddler curriculum
includes 42 vital experiences focuses on six content areas (High/Scope Educational Research Foundation,
2021):

Approaches to Learning

 Social and Emotional Development

 Physical Development and Health
 Communication, Language, and Literacy
 Cognitive Development
 Creative Arts

Teacher interactions with infants and toddlers are especially crucial, establishing the secure
relationships that encourage infants’ and toddlers’ active exploration of their environments. The
willingness of infants and toddlers to explore their world is enhanced by being surrounded by approving
and attentive adults who are attuned to the individual children’s needs and cues.

The use of centers, the belief in active learning, and the plan-do-review cycle allows children to
progress at their individual pace. This benefits all children including children who are diverse learners.
Through continuous and perceptive observation, High/Scope teachers ascertain where children are
developmentally and then provide a broad range of appropriate learning opportunities.

Creative Curriculum
 Over 30 years ago, Diane Trister Dodge developed Teaching Strategies – the curriculum framework of
Creative Curriculum – to support early childhood educators as they planned and implemented
developmentally appropriate, content-rich programs that facilitate active learning and promote pre-
school and kindergarten children’s progress in all developmental areas. Twenty-five years ago, the
Creative Curriculum for Infants, Toddlers, and Twos was added to assist teachers as they develop daily
routines and meaningful activities that meet the needs, strengths and interests of our youngest children.

The Creative Curriculum is based on the work of six main theorists. Using their views of children as the
organizational framework, the curriculum serves as a guideline for how to provide the best education and
care for young children. T. Berry Brazelton and Abraham Maslow believed that children’s basic needs
such as safety, security, and esteem need to be met. Erik Erikson and Stanley Greenspan focused on
children’s need for trusting, secure relationships with adults that foster emotional and social growth.
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky theorized how interactions with others and the environment are crucial for
cognitive development ([Link]).

The Creative Curriculum for Infants, Toddlers and Twos has five components that guide teacher
decision-making about routines and activities they provide for children birth to 36 months of age. The
components are:

1. Knowing infants, toddlers, twos – the teacher is responsible for utilizing the provided
Developmental Continuum to evaluate each child’s development; then plan individually
appropriate experiences and routines; consider the child’s temperament, culture, life
circumstances and any disabilities; and assess each child’s progress.
2. Creating a responsive environment – the physical environment is designed to be
welcoming, home-like, pleasant and efficient for learning and teaching. Daily and
weekly, individualized lessons and routines are planned and implemented.
3. What children are learning – teacher observation of each child’s progress across all
developmental domains allows the teacher to plan meaningful lessons. Traits for pre-
school and kindergarten readiness include confidence, curiosity, intentionality, self-
control, relatedness, cooperativeness and capacity to communicate.
4. Caring and teaching – teachers use their knowledge of child development and individual
children’s strengths and needs to build trusting, responsive relationships with children.
An ongoing assessment plan is in place in every classroom.
5. Building partnerships with families – welcoming programs help to build positive
relationships with families; teachers encourage families to actively participate in their
 child’s experiences, thus alleviating some of the stress of placing a child in an educare
setting.

The Creative Curriculum for Pre-School is based on five principles:

1. Positive interactions and relationships with adults provide a critical foundation for
successful learning.
2. Social-emotional competence is a significant factor in school success.
3. Constructive, purposeful play supports essential learning.
4. The physical environment affects the type and quality of learning interactions.
5. Teacher-parent relationships promote development and learning
([Link]).

The Creative Curriculum offers for purchase a planned curriculum and assessment system (GOLD) for
four age groups/educare environment: Infants, Toddlers, and Twos; Pre-School; Kindergarten; and
Family Childcare. The [Link] website also provides research and theory papers on a
variety of topics such as executive function, letter recognition, phonological awareness, and curriculum
for English and Dual-Language Learners.

Creative Curriculum Overview

Using The Creative Curriculum System for Preschool

Chapter 5 - Section 7
Project Approach

The use of project-based learning was influenced by the work of educators in the British Infant
Schools in the early 1900’s and later by John Dewey in his lab school at the University of Chicago (Follari,
2011). This curriculum framework emerges out of children’s interests and is taught through hands-on
investigations and active inquiry. The Reggio Emilia approach is a prime example of an effective project
approach.
 Topics can be suggested by children or can be introduced by the teacher based on teacher observations
of children in their play and interactions. The project can be a whole group, small group, or individual
study. “A key feature of project work is that it is an investigation – a piece of research that involves
children seeking answers to questions they have formulated” (Katz & Chard, 2000, p.2). Interest in a topic
is a strong motivator for learning; children are allowed to investigate projects in which they are
interested. Being excited, engaged and motivated about the topic fulfills one of the four key learning
goals addressed in the project approach (Katz & Chard, 2000):

 Knowledge
 Skills
 Dispositions
 Feelings

As soon as the topic is selected, teachers and

children first plan the investigation, then carry out the
investigation, and finally, share the project in a
culminating activity. In the planning phase, children
and teachers brainstorm what they already know
about the topic, using graphic organizers such as
KWL’s, Venn Diagrams, and concept maps. In the
investigation phase children collect, record, analyze,
and share data. The culminating activity includes
charts, displays, Power Point presentations, reports, plays, open houses, etc.

During the investigation, teachers keep a detailed, daily account of the path of the project, the
children’s learning, and the standards covered. Authentic documentation is an important aspect of the
project approach. Direct-teaching of embedded skills and knowledge is balanced with child-directed
hands-on inquiry and exploration. One of the benefits of the project approach is the ability to support
diverse learning styles and multiple ways that children can represent their learning.

In Conclusion

It is important that early childhood educators know about a variety of programs for children, their
historical roots, and practical application in the lives of children. In addition, it is important that early
childhood educators are knowledgeable in their field and are able to compare and contrast the wide range
of approaches. The knowledge gained provides a frame of reference as the early childhood educator
crafts her philosophy of early learning which then shapes her classroom and teaching.

Chapter 5 - Section 8
Summary

 Quality in early childhood care and education refers to the excellence of the program.
High-quality programs benefit children and their families, while poor-quality programs
are disadvantageous to children’s development and learning.
 According to the Montessori Method, the four most important aspects in understanding
how children learn are: the absorbent mind, prepared environment, sensitive periods,
and autoeducation.
 Waldorf education strives to instill a love of learning in children, to ensure that children
develop as a whole person with all three developmental elements addressed – mind,
body, and spirit - and to support a child’s evolution into a free and creative thinker.
 Forest Schools are a child-centered inspirational learning process, that offers
opportunities for holistic growth. It is a long-term program that supports play,
exploration, and risk taking.
 Head Start’s purpose is to serve children from low-income households by providing
extensive early childhood education, nutrition and health services, and parent
programs. The main purpose of an entitlement program such as Head Start is to offer an
enriched program to children from lower incomes – the “head start” that could reverse
the cycle of poverty, and ensure children’s readiness for kindergarten.
 The High/Scope educational model is based on Piaget’s cognitive development theory
and Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development. The curriculum emphasizes that
 children need to be engaged in active learning, partnering with teachers in building a
community of learners.
 The Creative Curriculum is based on the work of six main theorists: Brazelton, Maslow,
Erikson, Greenspan, Piaget and Vygotsky.
 The Project Approach curriculum framework emerges out of children’s interests and is
taught through hands-on investigations and active inquiry around a problem or
question.

Key Terms

absorbent mind
active learning
autoeducation
CDA
curriculum model
early intervention
educare
emergent curriculum
eurythmy
key developmental indicators
migrant families
poverty level
prepared environment
seasonal families
sensitive periods

Suggested Readings

Children’s Defense Fund. (2003). Head Start reauthorization: Questions and

answers. Washington, DC: Children’s Defense Fund.

Edwards, C.P., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (Eds.). (2012). The hundred languages of children: The
Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. (3rd Ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-
CLIO, LLC
Katz, L. & Chard, S. (2000). Engaging children’s minds: The project approach. Stanford, CT: Ablex
Publishing.

Montessori, M. (1967). The discovery of the child. New York: Ballantine.

Schweinhart, L.J. (2003). Validity of the High/Scope preschool education model. Ypsilanti, MI:
High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.

Waldorf Kindergarten Association. (1994). Understanding young children: Excerpts from lecture
by Rudolf Steiner. Silver Spring, MD: Waldorf Kindergarten Association.

Suggested Websites

American Montessori Society

[Link]

Creative Curriculum
[Link]

Forest School Association

[Link]

Head Start
..[Link]

HighScope Educational Research Foundation

[Link]

Reggio Emilia Approach

...[Link]

The Project Approach

...[Link]

Reflections
1. Why do the benefits of Head Start seem to fade out in grade one? Be sure to consider
such things as the way children are taught in kindergarten through first grade. What are
some of the ways you can help assure that the fade out effect does not happen?
2. Observe at an infant/toddler child care facility. Ask the teachers how they decide what
they will do with the children. Reflect on whether there is a “curriculum” in the program
and the developmental appropriateness.
3. How can you advocate for children with disabilities to receive the services they will need
in classrooms using the early childhood models presented in this chapter?