DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
A Complete, Easy-to-Understand Study Guide with Diagrams
Covers all learning objectives (SLOs):
• Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion
• Structures of the alimentary canal and associated organs
• Swallowing and peristalsis
• Enzyme action in different regions of the gut
• Role of the liver
• Structure of the villus, capillaries and lacteal
• Diarrhea, constipation and ulcers — causes, symptoms, treatment, prevention
1. Five Basic Processes: Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption,
Assimilation, Egestion
Before food can be used by our body, it must go through five important steps. Think of it like a journey —
food enters the body, gets broken down, useful parts are taken up into the blood, used by cells, and
leftover waste is removed.
Ingestion — Taking food into the body through the mouth.
Digestion — The mechanical and chemical breakdown of large, complex food molecules (carbohydrates,
proteins, fats) into small, simple, soluble molecules that the body can absorb.
Absorption — The movement of digested (small, soluble) food molecules from the alimentary canal into
the blood and lymph, mainly through the walls of the small intestine.
Assimilation — The process by which absorbed nutrients are used by body cells and tissues for growth,
repair, and energy release — i.e., the nutrients become part of the body or are used up.
Egestion — The removal of undigested, unabsorbed food material (waste) from the body as faeces
through the anus.
Why is this important? Every meal you eat is useless to your body until it is digested and absorbed.
Digestion breaks food down chemically so nutrients are small enough to pass through the gut wall into the
bloodstream — that is how your body actually 'gets' energy and building blocks from food.
2. Structures of the Alimentary Canal and Associated Organs
The alimentary canal (or gut) is a long, coiled muscular tube running from the mouth to the anus. Food
actually passes through this tube. Associated (accessory) organs — salivary glands, liver, gall bladder
and pancreas — are attached to the canal and pour digestive juices into it, but food never physically
enters them.
Figure 2.1 — The alimentary canal (main tube) and associated organs
Main regions of the alimentary canal
Region Main function
Mouth Chews food (mechanical digestion) and mixes it with saliva (chemical digestion begins)
Oesophagus (Gullet) A muscular tube that carries food from mouth to stomach by peristalsis
Stomach Churns food, mixes it with gastric juice; protein digestion begins
Small Intestine Main site of digestion and absorption of nutrients (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)
Large Intestine (Colon) Absorbs water and some salts; undigested matter is compacted
Rectum Stores faeces temporarily before egestion
Anus Opening through which faeces leave the body
Associated (accessory) organs
Organ Role
Salivary glands Produce saliva containing salivary amylase to begin starch digestion in the mouth
Liver Produces bile, which emulsifies (breaks up) fats into tiny droplets for easier digestion
Gall bladder Stores and concentrates bile made by the liver, releases it into the duodenum
Pancreas Produces pancreatic juice containing enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats
3. Swallowing and Peristalsis
Swallowing (Deglutition)
Swallowing moves a chewed lump of food (called a bolus) from the mouth into the oesophagus. The
tongue pushes the bolus to the back of the throat. A flap of tissue called the epiglottis folds down and
covers the windpipe (trachea), so food does not enter the lungs and instead goes down the oesophagus
into the stomach.
Peristalsis
Peristalsis is the wave-like, rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the wall of the alimentary
canal. Behind the food, circular muscles contract (squeeze) while, ahead of the food, they relax;
longitudinal muscles help push the food forward. This wave travels along the whole gut, moving food
steadily forward — this is why food moves down the oesophagus even if you swallow while lying upside
down!
Figure 3.1 — Peristaltic wave pushing a bolus of food forward
Key point: Peristalsis occurs throughout the alimentary canal, not just the oesophagus — it continues
moving food through the stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
4. Enzyme Action in Different Regions of the Alimentary
Canal
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the breakdown of large food molecules into smaller ones.
Different regions of the gut release different enzymes, each acting on a specific substrate and producing
specific products.
Region Enzyme Substrate Product(s)
Mouth Salivary amylase Starch Maltose
Stomach Pepsin Proteins Peptides
Stomach Rennin (in infants) Milk protein (caseinogen) Casein (curdled milk)
Small intestine Pancreatic amylase Starch Maltose
(pancreatic juice)
Small intestine Trypsin Proteins/peptides Peptides/amino acids
(pancreatic juice)
Small intestine Lipase Fats Fatty acids + glycerol
(pancreatic juice)
Small intestine Maltase Maltose Glucose
(intestinal juice)
Easy way to remember: Carbohydrates → broken down by amylases into sugars. Proteins → broken
down by proteases (pepsin, trypsin) into amino acids. Fats → broken down by lipase into fatty acids and
glycerol. Bile does not contain enzymes — it only physically emulsifies fat into smaller droplets so lipase
can work faster.
5. Role of the Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body and plays several important roles in digestion:
• Produces bile, a greenish fluid stored in the gall bladder and released into the duodenum.
• Bile emulsifies fats — it breaks large fat globules into tiny droplets, increasing their surface area so
pancreatic lipase can digest them more efficiently.
• Bile also neutralises stomach acid that enters the small intestine, creating a suitable alkaline pH for
pancreatic enzymes to work.
• The liver stores absorbed nutrients (such as glucose, as glycogen) and helps regulate blood sugar.
• It detoxifies harmful substances absorbed from the gut before they reach the rest of the body.
Remember: Bile is NOT an enzyme — it does not chemically break down fat molecules. It physically
emulsifies fat (like washing-up liquid breaks up grease), making digestion by lipase faster.
6. Structure of the Villus
The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with millions of tiny, finger-like projections called villi
(singular: villus). Villi are the main site of nutrient absorption.
Figure 6.1 — Structure of a single villus
Why villi are so effective at absorption
• They greatly increase the surface area of the small intestine, allowing faster absorption.
• Each villus has a thin, single layer of epithelial cells — a short diffusion distance for nutrients.
• A dense network of blood capillaries runs through each villus — it absorbs digested glucose and
amino acids, carrying them away in the bloodstream to the liver.
• A central vessel called the lacteal (part of the lymphatic system) absorbs digested fatty acids and
glycerol (fats), carrying them into the lymphatic system.
Quick comparison: Capillaries → absorb glucose & amino acids (water-soluble nutrients). Lacteal →
absorbs fatty acids & glycerol (fat-soluble nutrients).
7. Disorders of the Gut: Diarrhea, Constipation and Ulcer
Diarrhea
Frequent passage of loose, watery stools.
• Signs/symptoms: Watery stools, stomach cramps, dehydration, sometimes fever or vomiting.
• Causes: Bacterial or viral infections, contaminated food/water, food poisoning, poor hygiene.
• Treatment: Oral rehydration solution (ORS) to replace lost water and salts, plenty of fluids, medical
treatment if caused by infection.
• Prevention: Drink clean/boiled water, wash hands before eating, eat properly cooked and hygienically
stored food.
Constipation
Difficulty in passing stools, or infrequent, hard, dry bowel movements.
• Signs/symptoms: Hard stools, straining, bloating, abdominal discomfort.
• Causes: Low fibre diet, insufficient water intake, lack of physical activity, ignoring the urge to defecate.
• Treatment: Increase dietary fibre (fruits, vegetables, whole grains), drink more water, regular
exercise; laxatives only if advised by a doctor.
• Prevention: Balanced fibre-rich diet, adequate water intake, regular physical activity, and regular
bowel habits.
Ulcer (Peptic Ulcer)
An open sore that develops on the inner lining of the stomach or the upper part of the small intestine
(duodenum), where the protective mucus lining is damaged by acid.
• Signs/symptoms: Burning stomach pain, bloating, heartburn, nausea, sometimes vomiting blood in
severe cases.
• Causes: Infection by Helicobacter pylori bacteria, overuse of certain pain-relief medicines, excess
stomach acid, stress, smoking and alcohol.
• Treatment: Antibiotics (if bacterial infection is present), medicines to reduce stomach acid, avoiding
spicy food, smoking and alcohol.
• Prevention: Eating regular, balanced meals, avoiding excessive use of pain-relief medicines,
managing stress, avoiding smoking and excess alcohol.
Quick Revision Summary
Term One-line meaning
Ingestion Taking food into the mouth
Digestion Breaking food into small, absorbable molecules
Absorption Digested food entering blood/lymph
Assimilation Absorbed nutrients used by body cells
Egestion Removing undigested waste as faeces
Peristalsis Wave-like muscle contractions moving food along the gut
Bile Emulsifies fat; made in liver, stored in gall bladder
Villus Finger-like projection in small intestine that absorbs nutrients
Lacteal Vessel in villus that absorbs fats
Tip for exams: Practice drawing and labelling the alimentary canal diagram and the villus diagram —
these are common exam questions. Also be ready to link each enzyme to its substrate and product.