ME6170

THEORY OF FIRE PROPAGATION

(FIRE DYNAMICS)
Week 2
Prof. V. Raghavan
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai 600017, INDIA
Email: raghavan@[Link]
Module 1: Basics of Fires (continued)
 Definitions (Smoldering)

• Fire represents chemical reactions in gas-phase and is often

referred to as flaming reaction. On the other hand, surface
reaction over hot char of a charring material is non-flaming.
• No flame or fire is observed and a red hot zone is seen as in the
case of cigarette burning. This is called smoldering.
• Porosity of the material, oxygen concentration and its diffusion,
and heat loss to the ambient dictate the smoldering process.
• Smoldering can initiate a flaming combustion (fire) or at the end of
the flaming combustion, smoldering can occur.
• Smoldering occurring in oxygen limited environment inside a
compartment leads to generation of hot fuel gases, which can
auto-ignite when exposed to sufficient amount of atmospheric air.
• This is called backdraft and is dangerous particularly for fire fighters.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 3

 Definitions (Smoke)

• If the fuel has unsaturated hydrocarbons, carbonaceous particles,

called soot, are formed in the fire.
• The hot gaseous products along with soot is called smoke.
• Smoke point quantifies the burning rate of the fuel when soot is
formed.
• Smoke has common pollutants such as carbon-monoxide (CO)
and nitric oxides. When materials such as plastics burn, more
harmful pollutants such as dioxins are formed.
• Smoke in a compartment fire decreases the visibility significantly
within the compartment, at a particular stage of the fire.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 4

 Definitions (Fire detection and suppression)

• Fire is detected using smoke detectors and CO sensors.

• These are usually located in the ceiling of a compartment.
• Smoke detectors are usually photo-electric based devices.
• CO sensors are of electro-chemical or opto-chemical type devices.
• Once the fire is detected, devices such as sprinklers are
activated. Time for detection depends upon a parameter called
Response Time Index (RTI).
• Fire suppression is achieved by three ways; reducing the
temperature of the flame and fuel surface, diluting the oxygen or
fuel to reduce their concentration, and directly inhibiting the
chemical reactions.
• Sprinklers reduce the temperature and oxygen concentration.
• Foams are used in liquid fuel pool fires to inhibit the fuel vapors
coming out of the pool surface.
• Agents such as halons directly inhibit the major oxidation reactions.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 5

 Flammability tests

• Flammability tests are carried out to evaluate several fire related

aspects of materials used in several applications.
• Tests for ignitability, flame spread rate, mass burning rate and
heat release rate are carried out.
• Several standards such as ASTM provide procedure to carry out
these tests.
• American Society for Testing and Materials: Fire and flammability
standards
• [Link]
• National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA)
• The apparatus commonly used for flammability tests are Flame
Propagation Apparatus (FPA) and cone calorimeter (CC).

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 6

 Cone Calorimeter
Orifice plate Exhaust duct

Hood

Blower Gas sampling

port
Laser smoke Cone heater
meter
Spark
plug

Specimen
Specimen holder

Vertical orientation Load cell

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 7

 Radiant Panel Test

Collection
Gas sampling hood
port

Wire igniter
Water cooled
Top cap of the
supporting frame
specimen holder
Radiant heat
units Specimen

Weighing
platform
Trolley

Radiant panel Specimen holder

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 8

 Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA)
Combustion products
Product sample
analysis

Collection hood

Quartz tube

Sample support Infrared heaters (4)

on load cell
Test sample

Air distribution
box Aluminum
Air + Oxygen support cylinder

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 9

 Ignition test

• Ignition tests on FPA or cone calorimeter are conducted on

materials by subjecting its surface to a certain heat flux and using
a pilot igniter, such as a spark plug, at a given distance from the
material’s surface.
• Heat flux at which flaming ignition occurs is called critical heat flux.
• Temperature of the surface, at which ignition occurs, is called
ignition temperature.
• Thermal Response Parameter (TRP) is then defined using
thermal inertia of the material and ignition temperature.
• Empirical correlation for time for ignition is obtained by using
factors such as ignition temperature, critical and external heat flux
values, fraction of the critical heat flux that is lost to the ambient,
and material thickness.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 10

 Heat of gasification or pyrolysis

• Heat of gasification (or pyrolysis) is determined using FPA using

flaming and non-flaming approaches.
• Here, the mass loss rate is measured along with the values of
heat flux to the surface (convective and radiative), re-radiation loss
and external heat flux, if any. Using these, the heat of gasification
is determined.
• Heat of gasification is also correlated, as a function of molecular
mass. For several hydrocarbons having molecular mass in the
range of 30 kg/kmol to 250 kg/kmol such correlations are
available.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 11

 Flame heat flux

• Flame heat flux is measured using standard procedures in FPA or

CC.
• Contributions of heat flux to the surface by convection and
radiation are determined for various materials with varying surface
areas burning in an ambience having varying oxygen
concentrations.
• Convective heat transfer coefficient for the flow field in FPA is
determined using combustion of simple fuel such as methanol.
• As the oxygen mass fraction is increased more than around 0.3,
asymptotic behaviors in mass loss rate and flame heat flux are
observed.
• Also, as the material surface area is increased, the radiative
contribution of flame heat flux increases and reaches an
asymptotic value and convective contribution decreases.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 12

 Flame spread rate

• Flame spread rate is commonly determined by FPA and a device

called Lateral Ignition and Flame spread Test (LIFT) apparatus,
similar to FPA.
• Quantities such as location of pyrolysis front (the length until
which pyrolysis has happened in the surface of the solid fuel),
flame spread rate, flame height and heat release rate as a
function of time are measured under various conditions.
• Empirical relations for flame height as a function of pyrolysis front,
normalized heat release rate and fire propagation rate are
proposed.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 13

 Flame propagation index

• Fire propagation index (FPI) is correlated in terms of heat

release rate and Thermal Response Parameter (TRP).
• Flame propagation apparatus is used to determine FPI of various
materials by conducting concurrent flame spread tests,
considering the aspects of flame radiation, to categorize these
materials.
• Based on the value of FPI, it can be determined whether flame will
propagate over the material or not, under a given ambient
condition.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 14

 Heat release rate

• Heat release rate is measured commonly using techniques such

as Carbon Dioxide Generation (CDG) calorimetry and Oxygen
Calorimetry (OC).
• In CDG calorimetry, precise measurements of mass burning rate
and rates of generation (kg/m2-s) of carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) are made.
• With these, the heat release rate can be determined.
• For several fuels, the net heat of complete combustion per unit
mass of CO2 generated is 13.3 ± 1.5 MJ/kg and the net heat of
complete combustion per unit mass of CO generated is 11.1 ± 2
MJ/kg.
• In OC, precise measurements of mass burning rate and mass
consumption rate of oxygen are made. Net heat of combustion per
unit mass of oxygen consumed is 13.3 ± 0.7 MJ/kg.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 15

 Compartment fire test facility

• Fire in a compartment (an enclosed space) is studied using a

standard compartmental test facility.
To exhaust gas Gas and smoke
cleaning instrumentation in duct
Exhaust duct
0.4 diameter

Hood
3×3

2.4

Doorway
0.8 × 2

3.5
Side view Front view

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 16

 Typical exhaust hood dimensions

• A conical exhaust hood is used to receive the combustion

products and its dimensions are coupled with the power rating of
the fire.
• For example, an FPA capable of testing 10 MW fire is constructed
in a compartment with a ceiling height of 18.3 m and the inlet
diameter of the exhaust hood is 6.1 m, as per ASTM E2058
standards.
• Similarly, there exist standards for dimensions of piping, burning
platform and many other aspects.
• Convective heat transported by the product gases are estimated
by Gas Temperature Rise (GTR) calorimetry. Here, the
temperature difference between the exhaust and incoming gas
mixture is measured.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 17

 Estimation of useful quantities

• The mass flow rate of the product gases and its specific heat
(product mixture) are used to determine the convective heat
release.
• The difference between the net heat release and convective heat
release is calculated as the radiative heat release.
• Calorimetry can also be used to measure the smoke point, which
is the minimum laminar volumetric flow rate of the fuel at which
smoke just escapes from the flame tip.
• Smoke point values have been reported for several gas, liquid and
solid fuels.
• Combustion efficiency and CO generation efficiency are correlated
to the smoke point.
• Apart from these, corrosion hazards due to fire can be estimated
using this apparatus.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 18

 Non-dimensional numbers for fire study

• Fire can be as small as a room heating fire (order of meters) to as

high as a forest fire (order of 100+ meters).
• Fire hazard in a given structure cannot be easily understood just
by constructing a scaled down model of the structure.
• There are several aspects related to the scaling procedure.

Length scale (m) 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 101 102

Fire: Smolder Candle Waste bin Room Building Forest

• From conservation equations of mass, momentum, energy, and

species used to model incompressible reactive flows, several non-
dimensional groups can be identified using Buckingham’s Pi
theorem.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 19

 Non-dimensional numbers for fire study

• Let U∞, p∞, T∞ and L be the reference velocity, pressure,

temperature, and length, respectively. The reference time (tR) is
written as, tR = L/U∞.
• Velocity appropriate to buoyancy driven flow and related reference
time are estimated as, U∞ = (gL)0.5 and tR = (L/g)0.5.

Definition Equation
Reynolds number (inertia to 𝝆∞ 𝑼∞ 𝑳
viscous force) 𝝁
Froude number (inertia to 𝑼𝟐∞
gravity force) 𝒈𝑳
Euler number (pressure force 𝒑∞
to inertial force) 𝝆∞ 𝑼𝟐∞
Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 20
 Non-dimensional numbers for fire study
Definition Equation
Prandtl number (momentum to thermal 𝝁𝒄 𝝂
=
diffusivity) 𝒌 𝜶
Biot number (conductive to convective 𝒉𝜹𝒘
resistance) 𝒌𝒘
Nusselt number (convective to conductive 𝒉𝑳
heat transfer) 𝒌𝒇

𝝈𝑻𝟑∞
Radiation energy/Convective thermal energy
𝝆∞ 𝒄 𝒈𝑳 𝟎.𝟓

Physical length/Radiation absorption length 𝜿𝑳

𝒈𝑳
Potential energy/Enthalpy
𝒄𝑻∞
Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 21
 Non-dimensional numbers for fire study

Definition Equation
Zukoski number (Fire power to 𝑸ሶ
enthalpy flow rate) 𝝆∞ 𝒄𝑻∞ 𝑳𝟐 𝒈𝑳 𝟎.𝟓

Schmidt number (momentum to 𝝁 𝝂

=
mass diffusivity) 𝝆∞ 𝑫 𝑫
Fuel flow rate/Convective flow rate 𝒎ሶ 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍
of mixture 𝝆∞ 𝑳𝟐 𝒈𝑳 𝟎.𝟓

Transient conduction normal to the 𝝆𝒘 𝒄𝒘 𝜹𝟐𝒘

wall surface 𝒌𝒘 𝒕𝑹

𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟑∞ 𝜹𝒘
Surface radiation/Conduction
𝒌𝒘
Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 22
 Nomenclature

Symbol Definition Units

𝒕𝑹 Reference time s
µ Dynamic viscosity Pa-s
𝝆∞
Reference density kg/m3

𝒄 Specific heat J/kg-K

𝒌𝒘 Thermal conductivity of solid wall W/m-K
𝒌𝒇 Thermal conductivity of fluid W/m-K
𝝈 Stefan-Boltzmann constant W/m2 -K4

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 23

 Nomenclature (continued)

Symbol Definition Units

𝜿 Absorption coefficient m-1
Heat release rate
𝑸ሶ W
ሶ
(𝒎′′′ × ∆𝒉𝒄 × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆)
∆𝒉𝒄 Heat of combustion J/kg
Mass diffusivity (Diffusion
𝑫 m2/s
coefficient)
Mass flow rate of the fuel gases
𝒎ሶ 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 kg/s
(pyrolysate)
𝜹𝒘 Wall thickness (w - wall) m

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 24

Module 2: Review of thermo-chemistry,
chemical equilibrium &
kinetics
 Stoichiometry

• Fuels contributing to fire are mixtures of saturated and unsaturated

hydrocarbons, which contain some amount of C and H atoms.
• In many of these fuels, certain number of N, S, and O atoms are
also present.
• Stoichiometry is the science used to determine the amount of
oxidizer (air) required to completely burn one kg of the fuel, to form
carbon dioxide and water vapor (called major products of
combustion reaction). This is a theoretical value.
• Air is considered to be composed on 21% oxygen and 79%
nitrogen by volume, and impurities such as argon and carbon
dioxide, usually present in small amounts in atmospheric air, are
not considered.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 26

 Stoichiometry

• For a general hydrocarbon fuel represented by CxHy, containing x

carbon atoms and y hydrogen atoms, a global single-step
reaction considering its complete combustion in air is written as,
𝑦
𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 + 𝑎 𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 3.76𝑎𝑁2 .
2

• By balancing the number of atoms on both sides, value of a can

be found as, a = x + y/4. Here, nitrogen is considered as inert.
• The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is calculated as the mass of air
required to completely burn one kg of the fuel. It is written as,
𝑨 𝟐𝟖. 𝟖𝟒
= 𝟒. 𝟕𝟔 × 𝒂 ×
𝑭 𝒔𝒕 𝟏𝟐 × 𝒙 + 𝒚

• Here, 4.76 is number of moles of air, 28.84 is its molecular mass.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 27

 Oxygen starved and oxygen rich burning

• When the amount of air available for combustion is less than ‘a’
kmol (oxygen starved), species like CO, OH, H and so on are
seen in the product mixture as a result of incomplete combustion.
• Oxygen starved combustion occurs in several fire scenarios
occurring within compartments.
• In the cases of oxygen starved combustion or when dissociation of
the products occurs at high temperature, a knowledge of second
law of thermodynamics is required to determine the possible
species, which contribute to the product mixture, at a given
pressure and temperature.
• If the air availability is higher than ‘a’ kmol, the excess oxygen is
seen in the product mixture. In open fires or fires burning with
good ventilation, excess air entrains into the fire and the
products contain excess oxygen.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 28

 Equivalence ratio, elementary reaction

• A useful parameter, called equivalence ratio, is defined as the

ratio of stoichiometric air-fuel ratio to the actual air-fuel ratio.
• Consider a reaction with excess oxygen with dissociation of CO2:

𝐶7 𝐻16 + 13.75 𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 → 𝑎𝐶𝑂2 + bCO + 8𝐻2 𝑂 + cO2 + 51.7𝑁2 .

• Here, equivalence ratio is 0.8. It is less than 1 for excess oxygen

in the reactant and more than one for excess fuel in the rectant.
• However, product contain CO, due to dissociation of CO2.
• To calculate the values of a, b and c in the product mixture,
chemical equilibrium is used.
• Elementary reaction for CO2 dissociation: CO2 ↔ CO + ½ O2.
This is a reversible reaction (unlike the global single-step
reaction written above). At a given pressure and temperature, CO,
O2 and CO2 will be present in some proportions.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 29

 Chemical equilibrium

• At a given pressure and temperature, a parameter called

equilibrium constant, Kp, is evaluated using Gibbs free energy,
defined as g = h – Ts, (h is the specific enthalpy and s is the
specific entropy) and applied to the given elementary reaction:
CO2 ↔ CO + ½ O2. Kp is expressed in terms of molar Gibbs free
energy change (∆G), both as a function of temperature, as well
as a function of partial pressure ratio of products and reactants in
a given elementary reaction. For CO2 dissociation reaction:

−𝜟𝑮(𝑻, 𝒑𝟎 ) (𝒑𝑪𝑶 /𝒑𝟎 )𝟏 (𝒑𝑶𝟐 /𝒑𝟎 )𝟎.𝟓

𝑲𝒑 = 𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝑲𝒑 =
𝑹𝒖 𝑻 (𝒑𝑪𝑶𝟐 /𝒑𝟎 )𝟏

∆𝑮 = 𝟏 × 𝒈lj 𝑪𝑶 (𝑻, 𝒑𝟎 ) + 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝒈lj 𝑶𝟐 (𝑻, 𝒑𝟎 ) − 𝟏 × 𝒈lj 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝑻, 𝒑𝟎 )

• Here, p0 is atmospheric pressure. If reaction pressure is p, then,

the mole fraction of any species, Xi = pi/p. Then, pi/p0 = Xi(p/p0).
Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 30
 Equilibrium products

• Th unknowns, a and b in the below equation can be evaluated

using carbon and oxygen balances, and the equation involving Kp.

𝐶7 𝐻16 + 13.75 𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 → 𝑎𝐶𝑂2 + bCO + 8𝐻2 𝑂 + cO2 + 51.7𝑁2 .

• 7=a+b
• 13.75 = a + (b/2) + +(8/2) + c
𝟏 𝟎.𝟓
𝒑 𝒑
−𝜟𝑮(𝑻, 𝒑𝟎 ) 𝑿𝑪𝑶 𝑿𝑶𝟐 𝒃 × 𝒄𝟎.𝟓 𝒑
𝟎.𝟓
𝒑𝟎 𝒑𝟎
𝑲𝒑 = 𝐞𝐱𝐩 = 𝟏 =
𝑹𝒖 𝑻 𝒑 𝒂 𝒏 × 𝒑𝟎
𝑿𝑪𝑶𝟐
𝒑𝟎

• Here, n is total number of moles in products = a + b + 8 + c + 51.7.

• Kp is calculated using exponent term and 3 equations (set of non-
linear equations) are solved to get the values of a, b and c.
Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 31
 Multi-component fuels

• Fire scenarios encounter fuels, which are multi-component in

nature.
• Consider Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), a fossil fuel.
• It is a multi-component fuel that, on an average basis, typically
contains,0.03% CH4, 0.96% C2H6, 13.31% C3H8, 10.22% C3H6,
30.23% i-C4H10, 25.32% n-C4H10, 3.98% C4H8, 5.03% i-C4H8, 4.99%
trans-2-C4H8, 3.64% cis-2-C4H8, 1.96% i-C5H12 and 0.33% n-C5H12, by
volume.
• It is observed here that isomers of butane such as i-butane, and
that of butene, such as i-butene, trans-2- butene and cis-2-butene
are present in LPG.
• The chemical formula for isomers is the same as normal species,
but, its chemical structure varies.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 32

 Reaction with multi-component fuels

• Since volume percentages of the constituents are given, these

would convert as mole percentages. Therefore, for 100 kmol of
fuel, the single step reaction can be written as,
0.03CH4 + 0.96C2H6 + 13.31C3H8 + 10.22C3H6 + (30.23+25.32)C4H10 +
(3.98 + 5.03 + 4.99 + 3.64)C4H8 + (1.96 + 0.33)C5H12 + m(O2 +3.76N2)
→ nCO2 + pH2O + 3.76mN2

• For 1 kmol of fuel mixture,

0.0003 CH4 + 0.0096 C2H6 + 0.1331 C3H8 + 0.1022 C3H6 + 0.5555 C4H10
+ 0.1764 C4H8 + 0.0229 C5H12 + a(O2 + 3.76N2)
→ bCO2 + cH2O + 3.76aN2
• By atom balance, b = 3.77, c = 4.49 and a = 6.015. Molecular
weight of LPG is 12×3.77 + 8.98×1 = 54.2 kg/kmol.
• For burning one kg of LPG theoretically, 15.23 kg of air is required.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 33

 Solid fuels

• Consider a solid fuel such as wood. Results from proximate

analysis of wood give the weight percentages of its volatile, fixed
carbon, moisture and ash contents.
• Its ultimate analysis provides the elemental composition such
as percentages of C, H, O and N, on mass basis.
• When heated to a certain temperature, volatiles (gaseous fuels)
trapped inside the wood are released.
• Consider a typical wood that has 80% volatiles and 20% fixed
carbon from proximate analysis and 50% C, 8% H, 41.5% O and
0.5% N, obtained from its ultimate analysis, both on dry (moisture
free) and ash free basis.
• Carbon contained in volatiles contribute to the gas-phase
reactions, which are generally more rapid. Carbon in solid form
burns slowly due to the reaction occurring at its surface.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 34

 Representative composition

• When the solid fuel is heated in an inert (containing no oxygen)

atmosphere, volatiles are released, and fixed carbon and ash
remain as solid residuals.
• For calculating the stoichiometric air required for gas-phase
reactions involving volatiles alone, the fuel is represented in a
consolidated form, CxHyOzNp. The moles of C, H, O and N, which
are x, y, z and p, are evaluated considering results from proximate
and ultimate analyses.
• For this calculation, molecular weight of gaseous mixture
constituting the volatile matter is also required. Typical volatile
species trapped in a solid fuel are CH4, C2H2, C2H4, CO, H2, O2 and N2,
in some proportions, and the typical molecular weight of volatile
mixture is around 30 kg/kmol.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 35

 Representative composition of volatile

• The value of x in the consolidated fuel is calculated as,

weight of carbon in volatile Τ molecular weight of carbon
weight of volatiles in wood Τ molecular weight of volatiles

• For this case, out of 50% C, 20% is in solid form, therefore, x is

evaluated as,

50 − 20 Τ12
𝑥= = 0.9375
Τ
80 30

• Noting that hydrogen is present only in volatiles, the value of y is

obtained as,

8Τ1
𝑦= =3
80Τ30

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 36

 Stoichiometric reaction for volatile

• Similarly, the values of z and p are obtained as,

41.5Τ16 0.5Τ14
𝑧= = 0.9726 𝑝= = 0.0134
80Τ30 80Τ30

• The volatile is represented as C0.94H3O0.97N0.013. It is customary to

rewrite this as CH3.2O1.03N0.014, by keeping the number of atoms of
C equal to unity.
• The molecular weight of this fuel is 31.88 kg/kmol. Further, N can
be neglected and the number of atoms of H and O can be rounded
off such that the fuel is represented as CH3O. Its molecular weight
is 31 kg/kmol, showing only a 2.8% reduction, which is good
enough for fire analysis. Stoichiometric reaction is written as,

CH3O + 1.25(O2 + 3.76N2) → CO2 + 1.5H2O + 4.7N2

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 37

 Stoichiometric air for volatile and wood

• For this case, the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for burning the
volatiles is 5.535 kg/kg-volatile. It should be noted that the
oxygen inherent in the fuel contributes to a notable portion for
combustion.
• For burning unit mass of the wood (including both volatiles and
fixed carbon) is calculated, the unknowns in the consolidated fuel
(CxHyOzNp) are evaluated from the ultimate analysis only.
• For the case discussed above, x = 0.5/12, y = 0.08/1, z = 0.415/16
and p = 0.005/14. The consolidated fuel having one carbon atom
and neglecting N is written as, CH1.92O0.63. The single step
reaction is written as,

CH1.92O0.63 + 1.165 (O2 + 3.76 N2) → CO2 + 0.96 H2O + 4.38 N2

• Stoichiometric air for burning wood is 6.66 kg/kg-wood.

Dr. V. Raghavan, IIT Madras 38