COMPUTER MEMORY

Study Notes — Hardware Chapter

1. What Is Computer Memory?

Memory is one of the most important elements in a computer system. It is the storage area (internal or external)
that holds data and instructions during processing, in the form of binary numbers. It also relates to devices
responsible for storing data on a temporary or permanent basis.
Computer memory is broadly classified into two categories:
• Primary Memory — RAM and ROM
• Secondary Memory — Magnetic Storage, Optical Storage, Solid State Storage

Quick Map
Memory → Primary Memory (RAM: SRAM, DRAM | ROM: PROM, EPROM, EEPROM) and Secondary
Memory (Magnetic: Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, Magnetic Tape | Optical: CD, DVD, Blu-ray | Solid State:
Flash Drive, Memory Cards).

Fig 1.1 — Classification of Computer Memory

2. Primary Memory
The memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is called main memory, internal memory, or primary
memory. It is the internal storage unit used by a computer system to hold data and instructions, and it has limited
storage capacity.
Main memory is volatile in nature — when power is turned off, its contents are lost forever. A computer cannot
run without primary memory. There are two types of primary memory: RAM and ROM.

Fig 2.1 — RAM vs ROM at a Glance

2.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is the internal memory that can be both read from and written to. It is an integrated circuit that enables data
to be accessed in a random fashion (any location can be accessed directly, not just in sequence).
RAM improves the performance of a computer system by providing faster access to active data and files
compared to retrieving it from the much larger hard drive. It is volatile in nature — it requires a continuous power
supply, and if power is interrupted, all data is lost. RAM is also used in printers and other devices to improve
their efficiency.

Two Main Forms of RAM

Type Also How It Works Key Trait Typical Use
Written
As

Static RAM SRAM A group of flip-flops holds each bit Never needs Cache memory,
of data; a memory cell uses 4–6 refreshing; more video card
transistors with wiring. expensive; requires memory
more power

Dynamic DRAM Stores data in a cell containing a Must be refreshed Main system
RAM capacitor and transistor. The with electric pulses memory
capacitor holds the bit as 0 or 1; the every few
transistor acts as a switch. milliseconds

2.2 Read Only Memory (ROM)

In ROM, information once stored remains fixed — it cannot be changed — so ROM can only be used for
reading. It contains a set of start-up instructions, i.e., what the computer should do when it is turned ON.
The contents of ROM remain stored even when power is turned OFF, so it is a non-volatile type of memory.
ROM is most commonly used to store system-level programs that must always be available to the computer.

Categories of ROM
 Type Full Form Can Be How It Is Erased / Notes
Reprogrammed?

PROM Programmable Read Only Only once Programmed after creation; once
Memory written, the data is permanent and
cannot be changed. Used in video
game consoles, mobile phones, HD
multimedia interfaces.

EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Yes, multiple Erased by shining ultraviolet light
Only Memory times of a specific frequency for a set
period, then can be reprogrammed.
More useful than a regular PROM.

EEPROM Electrically Erasable Yes, electrically Most flexible type of ROM; erased
Programmable Read Only and reprogrammed using an
Memory electrical charge. Commonly used
for BIOS (Basic Input Output
System) programs. Requires 21
volts for writing/erasing and 5 volts
for read operations.

2.3 Cache Memory

Cache memory is the type of memory that is nearest to the CPU, where all the most recently used instructions are
stored.
It stores the program (or the part of it) currently being executed, or which may be executed within a short period
of time. Cache also stores temporary data that the CPU may recently require for manipulation. Its capacity is too
low compared to main memory and hard disk.

Check Point 2.3

1. By what other name is primary memory known?
2. How many types of RAM are there?
3. Who / what erases the information in EPROM?
4. How much electrical pulse is required for writing by EEPROM?

3. Secondary Memory / Storage Devices

This memory is also known as secondary storage or auxiliary memory. It is the slower and cheaper form of
memory, and the CPU does not access it directly.
It is a permanent storage device and non-volatile in nature — the information is not erased even when power is
switched off, and data is not destroyed until the user erases it.
Secondary memory devices fall into three broad groups: Magnetic Storage, Optical Storage, and Solid State
Storage.

3.1 Magnetic Storage

Magnetic storage is a storage medium commonly used for large volumes of data (for example, video, image, or
remote sensing data). Key points:
 • Uses a magnetic head to read and write data.
• Gets data from a magnetisable medium — the medium may be a plastic tape coated with fine metal particles.
• Can store lots of data, but access is slower.
• Devices include floppy disk drives, tape drives, and hard drives.

Floppy Disk (Diskette)

A Floppy Disk Drive (FDD) is a computer disk drive that lets a user save data on removable diskettes. It is a
rewritable, portable storage device that can be reused many times — made of plastic with a magnetic coating,
round in shape, and covered by a square plastic jacket.
Data is stored in tracks (circular segments, each with a unique number — the outermost track is 0) and sectors
(segments within each track, all of equal capacity). A metal sheet covers the read/write hole and opens
automatically when the floppy is inserted into the drive.
The first widely used floppy disk drives were 8-inch and 5¼-inch, later replaced by 3½-inch drives. Floppy disks
were popular from the 1970s to the early 2000s, but their use has declined significantly since then.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

HDD is a non-volatile, random access digital storage device used for storing and retrieving information using
rotating disks called platters, coated with magnetic material.
It consists of a spindle holding non-magnetic flat circular platters. Each platter needs two read/write heads to read
and write information. Information is stored in bands called tracks; a track location cutting across all platters is
called a cylinder. Tracks are divided into pie-shaped sections called sectors.

Fig 3.1 — Internal Structure of a Hard Disk Drive

 Fig 3.2 — Tracks and Sectors on a Platter

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a data storage medium made of magnetic material, stored on a large open reel or in a smaller
cartridge/cassette. The tape is a plastic ribbon, usually ½ inch or ¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet long, coated
with a magnetic recording medium.
Data is recorded as tiny invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots on the coated surface. Magnetic tapes are
cheaper but are sequential access devices — the tape must rewind or move forward to reach the requested data —
so they are not suited to files that need frequent revision. They are mainly used for backups and transferring data
between systems.

3.2 Optical Storage

Optical media store content in digital form. Key points:
• Uses a laser to read and write data.
• Data is stored as pits prepared using a laser beam — this process is called burning data onto a disk.
• Data is read by bouncing the laser beam off the media surface: a hit dot reflects the beam and records a 1;
otherwise it records a 0.
• Optical disc capacity ranges up to 8 GB.
• Tends to be slower than typical hard drive speeds.
• Examples: CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs.

Compact Disc (CD)

A CD is a cheap, small, portable, round optical media made of molded polymer, coated with a highly reflective
thin metal layer. It is also known as a laser disc or optical laser disc. It provides random access for high-capacity
secondary storage; diameter ranges from 10 cm to 30 cm, and one CD stores 600 MB to 750 MB.

Variant Full Form

CD-ROM Compact Disc – Read Only Memory

CD-R Compact Disc – Recordable

 Variant Full Form

CD-RW Compact Disc – Rewritable

Digital Video Disc (DVD)

A DVD — also known as Super Density Disc (SDD) or Digital Versatile Disc — is an optical disc storage
medium manufactured by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. It offers higher storage capacity than a
CD while having the same physical dimensions, ranging from 4.7 GB to 9.4 GB. DVDs are commonly used to
store music or movies and can be played back on a television or computer.

Variant Full Form

DVD-ROM DVD – Read Only Memory

DVD-R DVD – Recordable

DVD-RW DVD – Rewritable

Blu-ray Disc (BD)

A Blu-ray Disc is an optical disc storage medium designed to re-capture data normally stored in DVD format. It
contains 25 GB (23.31 GB) per layer. It is named after the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows
information to be stored at a greater density than the longer-wavelength red laser used in DVDs — Blu-ray can
hold almost 5 times more data than a single-layer DVD.

Variant Meaning

BD-ROM Read only

BD-R Recordable

BD-RW Rewritable

BD-RE Rewritable

Fig 3.3 — Relative Storage Capacity: CD vs DVD vs Blu-ray

3.3 Solid State Storage
Solid state essentially means no moving parts. Solid-state storage devices are based on electronic circuits with no
moving parts, and they store persistent data on flash memory. A solid state drive is a high-performance plug-and-
play storage device. Examples include pen drives and memory cards.

Flash Drive / Pen Drive

A flash drive is a portable data storage device that includes flash memory with an integrated Universal Serial Bus
(USB) interface. It is typically removable, rewritable, and physically much smaller than a floppy disk — about
the size of a thumb. Flash drives are available in various capacities: 256 MB, 512 MB, 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB,
16 GB, up to 64 GB and beyond.

Memory Cards
Memory cards are chip-shaped data storage devices commonly used in electronic devices including digital
cameras, mobile phones, and laptop computers. They are small, re-recordable, easily portable, and very
lightweight.

Check Point 2.4

1. What are the other names of DVD?
2. How many types of compact discs are there?
3. How many bits are there in 1 byte?
4. What type of medium is magnetic tape?

4. Basic Units of Measurement

When you use RAM, ROM, a floppy disk, or a hard disk, the data is measured using specific units. In computer
terminology these are called Nibble, Bit, Byte, Kilobyte, Megabyte, Gigabyte, and so on.

Unit Definition

Bit The smallest unit of data. It is either 0 or 1.

Nibble A group of 4 bits, or half a byte.

Byte A group of 8 bits. A byte can represent 256 (2⁸) distinct values, such as
integers 0 to 255. Each keyboard character is represented through at least 1
byte.

Kilobyte (KB) Actually 2¹⁰ bytes → 1 KB = 1024 bytes.

Megabyte (MB) Actually 2²⁰ bytes → 1 MB = 1024 KB.

Gigabyte (GB) Actually 2³⁰ bytes → 1 GB = 1024 MB.

Terabyte (TB) Actually 2⁴⁰ bytes → 1 TB = 1024 GB.

Petabyte (PB) Actually 2⁵⁰ bytes → 1 PB = 1024 TB.

Exabyte (EB) Actually 2⁶⁰ bytes → 1 EB = 1024 PB.

Zettabyte (ZB) Actually 2⁷⁰ bytes → 1 ZB = 1024 EB.

Yottabyte (YB) Actually 2⁸⁰ bytes → 1 YB = 1024 ZB.

Unit Definition

Brontobyte Actually 2⁹⁰ bytes → 1 Brontobyte = 1024 YB.

Geopbyte Actually 2¹⁰⁰ bytes → 1 Geopbyte = 1024 Brontobyte.

Fig 4.1 — Memory Units Scale (each step = ×1024)

5. Quick Revision Summary

• Memory holds data and instructions during processing, in binary form — classified into Primary Memory
and Secondary Memory.
• Primary Memory (RAM & ROM) is volatile-heavy (RAM) or non-volatile (ROM) and communicates
directly with the CPU; it has limited capacity.
• RAM = read + write, volatile. SRAM (flip-flops, no refresh, fast, expensive — used in cache) vs DRAM
(capacitor + transistor, needs refreshing — used as main memory).
• ROM = read only, non-volatile, stores start-up instructions. PROM (write once) → EPROM (erase with UV
light) → EEPROM (erase electrically, used for BIOS).
• Cache memory sits nearest the CPU and holds currently/recently executed instructions — small but very fast.
• Secondary Memory is non-volatile, permanent, and cheaper, but the CPU cannot access it directly.
• Magnetic Storage: Floppy Disk (tracks & sectors, largely obsolete), Hard Disk (platters, tracks, cylinders,
sectors), Magnetic Tape (sequential access, used for backup).
• Optical Storage: CD (600–750 MB), DVD (4.7–9.4 GB), Blu-ray (25 GB per layer) — each with ROM /
Recordable / Rewritable variants.
• Solid State Storage: Flash Drive / Pen Drive (USB, portable) and Memory Cards (chip-based, used in
cameras/phones) — no moving parts.
• Measurement units scale by powers of 1024: Bit → Nibble → Byte → KB → MB → GB → TB → PB →
EB → ZB → YB → Brontobyte → Geopbyte.