Course title : SWE3001
Course title : Computer Networks
Module :2
Topic :3
Encoding Techniques
Encoding and Signalling
Encoding and Signalling
• Encoding and signaling are the main functions of physical layer.
• The physical layer generate the electrical, optical, or wireless signals that represent the
"1" and "0" on the media.
• Signaling is a method of representing the bits on the wire.
• Encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined "code”
for the secured transmission of data.
Encoding and Signalling
• Signaling defines method (voltage, current, RF, light) will be used to represent a 1
or 0.
• Example: 1 is 5 volts and a 0 is 0 volts, this is signaling
• Light is the signal generated by fiber cabling,
• Electrical pulse is the signal generated by copper cabling,
• Microwave is the signal generated by wireless communications.
• Data Encoding:
• The process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to represent
1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link.
• Example: 1 means "On" and a 0 means "Off", this is encoding
• Encoding is the way these bits are grouped in light form when put on the fiber wire.
• In electrical pulse form when put on copper wire,
• In microwave form when put on the air for wireless communications.
Representing bits on media
Encoding Techniques
• Analog data to Analog signals: The modulation techniques such as Amplitude
Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation(FM) and Phase Modulation (PM) of analog
signals, fall under this category.
• Analog data to Digital signals: This process can be termed as digitization, which is
done by Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Sampling and quantization are the important
factors in this. Delta Modulation gives a better output than PCM.
• Digital data to Analog signals: The modulation techniques such as Amplitude Shift
Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK), etc.,
• Digital data to Digital signals: The representation of digital information by a digital
signal. When binary 1s and 0s generated by the computer are translated into a
sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated over a wire.
Digital data to Digital signals
Line coding
• The process of converting digital data to digital signals.
• In general we assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images,
audio, or video, are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits.
• Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.
• At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital
data are recreated by decoding the digital signal.
Digital data to Digital signals
Baseline Wandering :
• In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a running average of the received
signal power. This average is called the baseline.
• The incoming signal power is evaluated against this baseline to determine the value of
the data element.
• A long string of 0s or 1s can cause a drift in the baseline (baseline wandering) and
make it difficult for the receiver to decode correctly.
• A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering.
Digital data to Digital signals
DC Components:
• When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum creates
very low frequencies.
• These frequencies around zero, called, DC (direct-current) components, present
problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a system that uses
electrical coupling.
Self-synchronization:
• To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receiver's bit intervals
must correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals.
• If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals are not matched and the
receiver might misinterpret the signals.
• A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the data being
transmitted.
• This can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the receiver to the
beginning, middle, or end of the pulse.
Digital data to Digital signals Encoding
Unipolar (Non Return to Zero (NRZ))
• Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium link such as
wire or cable.
• Here, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or below.
• Uses only one polarity (+ve or –ve voltage).
• Polarity (i.e. one voltage level) is assigned to any one data bit (0 or 1), normally 1.
• Positive voltage defines bit 1 and zero voltage defines bit 0.
• It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.
• Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.
• Compared with its polar counterpart, the normalized power (power needed to send 1
bit per unit line resistance) is double that for polar NRZ.
• For this reason, this scheme is normally not used in data communications today.
Polar
• In Polar encoding the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis.
• Normally Uses two voltage levels, one positive and one negative
• Example: The voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be
negative.
• By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced.
Non Return to Zero Level (NRZ-L):
• Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits; (normally positive voltage for bit 0 and
negative for bit 1)
• The level of voltage determines the value of a bit. If a bit is 0 or 1, then their voltages
will be positive and negative respectively or vice versa.
• Voltage constant during bit interval i.e., no transition (return) to zero voltage in
between a bit & hence the name
• NRZ-L is used for short distances between a terminal and modem or terminal and
computer.
Non Return to Zero Inverted (NRZ-I):
• Change or lack of change in the voltage level determines the value of a bit.
• Signal is inverted if bit 1 is encountered.
• For bit 1, there will be a change in the voltage level, and for bit 0, there won’t be
any change in the voltage level.
• Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
• No transition denotes binary 0
• NRZ-I is a differential encoding scheme (i.e., the information transmitted is terms
of comparing adjacent signal elements.)
Problems encountered in NRZ-L and NRZ-I
• Baseline wandering is a problem for both variations; it is twice as severe in NRZ-L.
If there is a long sequence of 0s or 1s in NRZ-L, the average signal power becomes
skewed. The receiver might have difficulty discerning the bit value.
• In NRZ-I this problem occurs only for a long sequence of 0s. If we eliminate the long
sequence of 0s, we can avoid baseline wandering.
• The synchronization problem (sender and receiver clocks are not synchronized)
also exists in both schemes. Again, this problem is more serious in NRZ-L than in
NRZ-I. While a long sequence of as can cause a problem in both schemes, a long
sequence of 1s affects only NRZ-L.
• Another problem with NRZ-L occurs when there is a sudden change of polarity in
the system. For example, if twisted-pair cable is the medium, a change in the
polarity of the wire results in all 0s interpreted as 1s and all 1s interpreted as 0s.
NRZ-I does not have this problem.
RZ (Return to zero) Encoding
• One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme.
• Uses three values: positive (1), negative (0), and zero
voltage represents none.
• In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the
bit.
• Halfway through each interval, the signal returns to zero i.e.,
the signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit. It remains
there until the beginning of the next bit.
• 1 represents positive-to-zero and 0 represent negative-to-
zero.
RZ (Return to zero) Encoding
Drawbacks:
• The main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires two signal changes to encode
a bit and therefore occupies greater bandwidth.
• Sudden change of polarity resulting in all 0s interpreted as 1s and all 1s interpreted as
0s, still exist here, but there is no DC component problem.
• Complexity: RZ uses three levels of voltage, which is more complex to create and
distinguish. As a result of all these deficiencies, the scheme is not used today.
Digital Data
Unipolar NRZ
Polar NRZ-L
Polar NRZ-I
RZ
Bi-Phase Encoding
• Involves double-checking of the signal.
• Signal changes at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero.
• Signals are checked at the beginning and in the middle.
• Due to double-checking of the signal, the clock rate is twice the rate of data
transfer.
• The clock synchronization is taken from the signal; Hence it requires a greater
bandwidth.
• The two types of Bi-phase encoding are Bi-phase Manchester and Differential
Manchester.
Bi-phase - Manchester
• In Manchester encoding, the transition is done at the middle of the bit-interval.
IEEE802.3: Dr. Thomas:
A low-to-high transition for 1 A low-to-high transition for 0
A high-to-low transition for 0 A high-to-low transition for 1
Bi-phase - Manchester
• In Manchester encoding, the transition is done at the middle of the bit-interval.
IEEE802.3: Dr. Thomas:
A low-to-high transition for 1 A low-to-high transition for 0
A high-to-low transition for 0 A high-to-low transition for 1
Differential Manchester
• Differential Manchester, combines the
ideas of RZ and NRZ-I.
• A bi-phase encoding in which transition at
the start of the bit period represents 0, and
a lack of transition at the start of the bit
represents 1.
• In addition, a transition occurs at the
middle of each bit period just for the
purpose of clocking.
• There is always a transition at the middle
of the bit, but the bit values are
determined at the beginning of the bit.
• If the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if
the next bit is 1, there is none.
Drawback of Bi-phase
• The only drawback of Bi-phase is the signal rate.
• The signal rate for Manchester and differential Manchester is double that for NRZ.
• The reason is that there is always one transition at the middle of the bit and maybe
one transition at the end of each bit.
Bipolar Schemes (Multi Level Binary Schemes)
• Use three voltage levels, positive, negative, and zero.
• The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for the other
element alternates between positive and negative.
• AMI and Pseudo ternary are the two variations of bipolar encoding.
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI):
• 0 represented by a neutral zero voltage
• 1 represented by alternative positive and negative voltages.
Pseudo ternary:
• 1 represented by a neutral zero voltage
• 0 represented by alternative positive and negative voltages.
• The bipolar scheme was developed as an alternative to
NRZ.
Bipolar Schemes
• Describe different digital signal encoding format. With the help of neat diagrams,
represent the digital data 01001100011.
• What is meant by line coding? Encode 11 0 11 by AMI, differential Manchester and
polar RZ techniques.
• Encode the data 01010011 by NRZ-L, AMI, Manchester and Differential Manchester
techniques.
• For the bit stream 11000110010,sketch the wave form for each of the code of NRZ-
[Link]-L, Bipolar-AMI, Pseudo ternary, Manchester, Differential Manchester.