CHAPTER 2: LEARNING

“Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience

or practice.”
The “relatively permanent” part of the definition refers to the fact that when people
learn anything, some part of the brain is physically changed to record what they have learned.
This is actually a process of memory, for without the ability to remember what happens,
people cannot learn anything. Although there is no conclusive proof as yet, research suggests
strongly that once people learn something, it is always present somewhere in the memory.

Several aspects of this definition are:

i) The term learning does not apply to temporary changes in behavior such as those
stemming from fatigue, drugs or illness.
ii) It does not refer to changes resulting from maturation – the fact that you can
change in many ways as you grow and develop.
iii) Learning can result from vicarious as well as from direct experiences; in other
words, you can be affected by observing events and behavior in your environment
as well as by participating in them.
iv) The changes produced by learning are not always positive in nature. People are as
likely to acquire bad habits as good ones.

Types of learning
1) Associative learning

Associative learning is the process by which an association between two stimuli or a behavior
and a stimulus is learned. The two forms of associative learning are classical and operant
conditioning. In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented
together with a reflex eliciting stimuli until eventually the neutral stimulus will elicit a response
on its own. In operant conditioning a certain behavior is either reinforced or punished which
results in an altered probability that the behavior will happen again.
 2) Cognitive learning

i) Observational learning

The learning process most characteristic of humans is imitation; one's personal repetition of
an observed behavior, such as a dance. Humans can copy three types of information
simultaneously: the demonstrator's goals, actions, and environmental outcomes. Through
copying these types of information, (most) infants will tune into their surrounding culture.

ii) Latent learning

The type of learning that occurs, but you don't really see it (it's not exhibited) until there is
some reinforcement or incentive to demonstrate it.

iii) Insight Learning

Insight learning is a type of learning or problem solving that happens all-of-a-sudden through
understanding the relationships various parts of a problem rather than through trial and error.

3) Trial and error learning

Trial and error learning is a simple form of learning. When the individual faces a new situation,
he makes a number of random movements. Out of those movements, unsuccessful ones are
eliminated and the successful ones are retained.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning became the subject of careful study in the early 20th century
when a Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, a Nobel Prize winner identified it as an important
behavior process.
Pavlov had been studying the secretion of stomach acids and salivation in dogs in
response to the ingestion of varying amounts and kinds of food. While doing so, he observed
a curious phenomenon. Sometimes stomach secretion and salivation would begin when no
food had actually eaten. The mere sight of a food bowl, the individual who normally brought
the food, or even the sound of that individual‟s footsteps was enough to produce a
physiological response in the dog. Pavlov recognized the implication of this rather basic
discovery. He saw that the dog was responding not only on the basis of a biological need
(hunger), but also as a result of learning called classical conditioning.
To demonstrate and analyze classical conditioning, Pavlov conducted a series of
experiments. In one, he attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog, which allowed Pavlov
to measure precisely the amount of salivation that occurred. He then sounded a tuning fork
and just a few seconds later presented the dog with meat powder. This pairing, was carefully
planned so that exactly the same amount of time elapsed between the presentation of the
sound and meat powder, and occurred repeatedly. At first, the dog would salivate only when
the meat powder itself was presented, but it soon began to salivate at the sound of the tuning
fork. In fact, even when Pavlov stopped presenting the meat powder, the dog still salivated
after hearing the sound. The dog had been classically conditioned to salivate to the tone.

A: BEFORE CONDITIONING

Sound of tuning fork ___________________________ pricking of ears

Neutral stimulus (NS) (Response unrelated to meat)

Meat powder _____________________________ Salivation

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR)

B: DURING CONDITIONING

Sound of tuning fork + meat powder _________________ Salivation

(NS + UCS) (UCR)

C: AFTER CONDITIONING

Sound of tuning fork ____________________________ Salivation

Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)
 Prior to conditioning there are two unrelated stimuli - the sound of tuning fork & the
meat powder. The sound of the tuning fork (neutral stimulus) leads not to salivation but to
some irrelevant response such as pricking of ears or perhaps a startle reaction and no
salivation.
Meat powder because of its biological makeup makes the dog naturally to salivate. The
meat powder is considered as an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS), a stimulus that brings
about a response without having been learned. It automatically causes salivation to occur.
The response (salivation) that the meat powder elicits is called Unconditioned Response
(UCR), a response that is natural and needs no training.
During conditioning the tuning fork is repeatedly sounded just before presenting the
meat powder. The goal of conditioning is for the tuning fork to become associated with the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) meat powder and therefore to bring about the same sort of
response during this period. Salivation gradually increases each time the tuning fork is
sounded, until the tuning fork alone causes the dog to salivate.
When conditioning is complete, the tuning fork has evolved from a neutral stimulus to
what is now called a Conditioned stimulus (CS). At this time, salivation that occurs as a
response to the tuning fork is considered a Conditioned response (CR). After conditioning,
then the conditioned stimulus evoked the conditioned response.
Learning of this type is quite common and seems to play a role in such varied reactions as
strong fears, taste aversions, some aspects of sexual behavior, and even racial or ethnic
prejudice (Baron & Byrne, 2000).

Classical conditioning – A kind of conditioning in which a previously neutral stimulus

comes to elicit a response through its pairing or association with the unconditioned
stimulus that naturally brings about the response.
A basic form of learning in which one stimulus comes to serve as a signal for the
occurrence of a second stimulus.

Principles of Classical conditioning

1. Acquisition: The process by which a conditioned stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a
conditioned response through repeated pairings of an unconditioned stimulus with the
conditioned stimulus which proceeds quite rapidly at first, increasing as the number of
pairings between conditioned and unconditioned stimulus increases.
2. Extinction - It was noted by Pavlov that if the conditioned stimulus (tuning fork) is
presented alone a number of times without food the magnitude of the conditioned
response (salivation) begins to decrease. This process of the weakening and eventually
disappearance of a conditioned response or [disconnection of the stimulus - response (S-
R) association] is called extinction.

3. Spontaneous recovery – It was also discovered by Pavlov that after a conditioned

response (salivation) is no longer evident, the behavior often reappears spontaneously
but at a reduced intensity. This phenomenon in which the reappearance of a previously
extinguished response after a period of time recovery. Even after extinction has taken
place, if he made a sound of tuning fork, the dog once again salivate. Similarly people
who have addicted to cocaine and managed to stop the habit and are “cured “ if they are
subsequently confronted by stimulus with strong connections to the drug such as a white
powder ,they may suddenly experience an irresistible impulse to use the drug again ,
even after long absence from drug use.

4. Stimulus generalization – In Pavlov‟s experiment, the dog gave the conditioned

response (salivation) not only at the sound of the tuning fork but also to other stimuli such
as similar sound. Therefore the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to
the original conditioned stimulus is called stimulus generalization. The more similar the
two stimuli, the more likely generalization are to occur.

5. Stimulus discrimination – It is the opposite of the stimulus generalization. For example,

the dog may be made to salivate only at the sight of the green light and not of the red or
any other. Stimulus discrimination is the process by which as organism learns to
differentiate among stimuli, restricting its response to one in particular. In this way,
through stimulus discrimination, one learns to distinguish, discriminate and react only to a
single specific stimulus out a variety of stimulus present in our environment.

6. Higher order conditioning – When we are pairing the previously conditioned stimulus
(sound of tuning fork ) with a new stimulus (light ) after a few trials the new stimulus (light)
gets the capacity of evoke the same response .So we can say that light order
conditioning has occurred. This occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with
 a neutral stimulus. The strong CS can actually play the part of the UCS, and the
previously neutral stimulus becomes a second conditioned stimulus.
For example,
Light --------------------------------------------------- No salivation
Sound + food --------------------------------------------------- Salivation
Light + sound + food ----------------------------------------------- Salivation
Light --------------------------------------------------- Salivation
Here there is no direct connection between food and light. Even though after a repeated
pairing of sound of forking and the light, the light has get the capacity to evoke a response.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning is the learning in which a voluntary response is
strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable
consequences.
In classical conditioning, the original behaviors are the natural, biological response to
the presence of some stimuli such as food, water and pain. While in operant conditioning
organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome. The term “Operant”
emphasizes that the organism operates on its environment to produce some desirable results.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

If you placed a hungry cat in a cage and then put a small piece of food outside the
cage beyond cat‟s reach, chances are that the cat would eagerly search for a way out of the
cage. The cat might try many ways to escape and get the food. Whenever the cat stepped on
a paddle that unlocks the door of the cage, allowing it to open, the cat could escape and eat
the food. The next time, it would probably take a little less time for the cat to step on the
paddle and escape. After a few trials, the cat would deliberately step on the paddle to attain
positive outcomes. Now it has learned the relationship between the food and the paddle.
According to Edward L. Thorndike (1932), this happened because of the law of the effect .It
stated that “Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be
repeated and responses followed by negative consequences or less likely to be
repeated”. Here because of the effect of food the cat repeated the behavior of stepping on
the paddle.
Experiment on Operant conditioning

An American psychologist, B.F Skinner proposed the concept of operant conditioning.

To demonstrate operant conditioning in the lab, a rat is placed in a box called “Skinner box”
the rat has been deprived of food for some specified period. The inside of the Skinner box is
bare, expect for the protruding bar with the food dish beneath it. Left alone in the box the rat
moves about restlessly and by chance occasionally presses the bar. The experimenter has
attached food. When the bar is being pressed, a pellet of food falls into the dish. The rat eats
and soon presses the bar again. The food reinforces the bar pressing and the rate of the
pressing increases dramatically. If the food magazine is disconnected so that pressing the bar
no longer delivers food, the rate of bar pressing will diminish.
The above experiment gives us the meaning of conditioned operant behavior. The
behavior “Operant “on the environment, the rat‟s pressing produces or gains access to the
food .In classical conditioning, the animal is passive, it merely waits until the conditioned
stimulus is presented and is followed by the unconditioned stimulus .In operant conditioning
the animal is active, its behavior cannot be reinforced unless it first does something.
Operant conditioning refers to increasing the probability of a response in a particular
stimulus environment by following the response with reinforcement .Usually the reinforcement
is something that can satisfy a basic desire, like food to satisfy hunger but it need not
necessarily be so. Because the bar is always present in the Skinner‟s box ,the rat can
response to it as frequently or infrequently as it chooses .Hence , rate of response as a useful
measure of operant strength .The more frequently the response occurs during a given
interval of time, the stronger it is .
Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a
preceding behavior will be repeated. A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the
probability that a preceding behavior can occur again.
Reinforcement can be bonuses, toys, good grades, money and etc we can divide the
reinforcer into two.
1. Primary reinforcer – is a reinforcer that satisfies some biological needs and works
naturally, regardless of a person‟s prior experience. For example: food for hungry
person.
2. Secondary reinforcer – is that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a
primary reinforcer. For e.g. money, appraisal, good grade .For instance we know that
money is valuable because it allows us to gain primary needs like food.

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcer can be thought of in terms of rewards, which increase the probability that a
preceding response will occur again.
 Positive reinforcement - The introduction or presentation of any stimulus that
increases the likelihood of a particular behavior .For e.g. giving a chocolate to a child
who has done his home work well.
 Negative reinforcement - the removal or withdrawal of any stimulus increase the
likelihood of a particular behavior .For eg: a teacher says to the students that whoever
does drill work properly will be exempted from homework. Here, homework acts as the
negative reinforcement and its removal leads to increase in a behavior to do drill work
properly. Loud buzz in some cars when ignition key is turned on; driver must put on
safety belt in order to eliminate irritating buzz. Here the buzz is a negative reinforcer for
putting on the seat-belt.

Negative reinforcement occurs in 2 major terms of learning.

Escape conditioning - an organism learns to make a response that brings about an end to
an aversive situation. In escape conditioning, the aversive stimulus must already be present
for the learning to occur. For e.g. the volume of your radio is high you reduce it so that your
ears doesn‟t get hurt.
Avoidance conditioning - occurs when as organism response to a signal of an impending
unpleasant event in a way that you get rid of it. Avoidance conditioning involves a warning
signal that enables the learner to discriminate a forthcoming punisher. For e.g. when you see
a garbage truck coming near your home, you close the windows of your room in advance so
that the foul smell doesn‟t enter it.
Punishment refers to unpleasant or painful stimulus is introduced when a behavior
occurs which decreases the likehood that the previous behavior will occur again.
Punishment is of 2 types.
 Positive Punishment or punishment by application - in this type of punishment we
apply some aversive stimulus. For e.g. beating a child for some kind of mischief or
putting a criminal in jail for some years for committing a crime.
 Negative punishment or punishment by removal - in this type of punishment we
remove a positive reinforcer or stimulus which is enjoyed by the person. For e.g. we
take away the toy a child who is quarreling or not giving alcohol to a drunkard.

Effectiveness of Punishment

For Punishment to be effective it must:

1. Be swift-delay won't work as well
2. Be sufficient without being cruel
3. Be consistent -punishment can be effective where behavior is dangerous.

Drawbacks of Punishment

 Punishment only suppresses undesired behavior. It doesn't prompt person to unlearn

nor doesn't teach a more desirable behavior.
 If threat of punishment is removed, negative behavior can return.
  Punishment stirs up negative feelings (child scolded for mispronouncing words). Harsh
behavior may increase aggressive behavior.
 Punishment needs to be given carefully and with reinforcement of desirable behavior.
Sometimes after punishment is administered a few times, threat of punishment is
enough to stop behavior.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
The frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior is known
as schedules of reinforcement.
1. Continuous reinforcement schedule - the reinforcing of a behavior every time it
occurs. For example: if we give chocolate each time to a child when a good behavior is
done by him/her.
2. Partial reinforcement schedule - the reinforcing of a behavior some but not all the
time. For e.g. if we give some kind of gift when the child passes for the yearly
examination.

Learning occurs more rapidly under a continuous reinforcement schedule but behavior
lasts longer after reinforcement stops when it is learned under a partial reinforcement
schedule. Why should partial reinforcement schedules result in stronger, long lasting
learning than continuous reinforcement schedules? A continuous reinforcement schedule
yields the least resistance to extinction and the lowest response rate during learning.
Learning of a response therefore occurs quickly if every correct response is rewarded, but
it is often forgotten easily when the reinforcement is stopped. In partial reinforcement
schedule the response is remarkable resistant to extinction.
Partial reinforcement can be divided in 2 categories: Ratio schedule and Interval schedule.
 Schedules that consider the number of responses made before reinforcement is
provided called a ratio schedule which has two types: fixed ratio and variable
ratio schedules.
 Schedules that consider the amount of time that elapses before reinforcement is
provided is called interval schedule with two types: fixed interval and variable
interval schedules.

We have 4 different combinations.

1. Fixed ratio schedule: in a schedule where reinforcement is given only after a certain
number of responses .For e.g. a student might be rewarded after he answers a fix
number of questions (say 5 or 7 questions). So the ratio will be 1:7 for every 7
questions one reward is given. This is used in some factories by employers where
wages are paid on a piece work basis the number of pieces made or the number of
boxes packed.
2. Variable ratio schedule: is a schedule where by reinforcement occurs after a varying
number of responses rather than after a fixed number. The most common example of
such an schedule is reinforcement operation schedules of gambling devices, here
rewards are unpredictable and keep the player well motivated through occasional
returns.
3. Fixed interval schedule: a schedule where by reinforcement is given established time
intervals. (Only after 3 minutes or 5 minutes) how many times he has given correct
responses during this fixed interval of time does not matter but gets the reinforcement
at the expiry of the time limit.
4. Variable interval schedule: is a schedule where by reinforcement is given at varying
intervals of the time rather than being fixed. Here reinforcement is intermittent and
irregular .For e.g. reward may be given in 5 minutes, 8 minutes or 10 minutes etc.
There is no consistency among the interval of time. So the organism continues its
responses throughout expecting the reward.
SHAPING AND CHAINING

Getting behavior started and then putting all together. How do we learn about new
forms of behavior with which we are unfamiliar? How this behavior is initially established?
It takes place by procedure known as shaping. Shaping is based on the principle that a little
can eventually go a long way. The organism undergoing shaping receives a reward for each
small step toward a final goal- the target response rather than only for the final response. At
first, the action even remotely resembling the target behavior termed successive
approximations are followed by a reward. Gradually closer and closer approximations of the
final target behavior only will be rewarded. Shaping helps organism acquire or construct new
and more complex forms of behavior form simple behavior.
What about establishing even more complex sequences of behavior? This can be done
by a process called chaining. In chaining a trainer establishes a sequence of chain of
responses, the last of which leads to a reward. Trainers usually begin chaining by just shaping
the final response. When this response is well established, the trainer shapes responses
earlier in the chain, and then reinforces them by giving the organism the opportunity to
perform responses later in the chain, the best of which produces the reinforcer.
Shaping and chaining have obviously had important implications for the human
behavior. For example, when working with a beginning student, a skilled dance teacher may
use shaping techniques to establish basic skills, such as performing a basic step by praising
simple accomplishments. As training progresses, however the student may receive praise
only when he successfully completes an entire sequence or chain of action.
Shaping: A technique in which close and closer approximations to desired behavior are
required for the delivery of positive reinforcement.
Chaining: A procedure that establishes a sequence of responses, which lead to a reward
following the final response in the chain.
Chaining involves breaking down a skill that requires multiple, distinct steps (such as tying
shoes, washing dishes, sweeping the floor, etc.) and teaching the steps one at a time to your
child. The goal of chaining behavior is to have the student perform each component behavior
of a complex task independently
 COGNITIVE LEARNING

Clearly not all learning is due to operant and classical conditioning. In fact, examples like
learning to drive a car imply that some kinds of learning must involve higher-order processes
in which people‟s thoughts and memories and the way they process information account of
their response.
Some psychologists view learning in terms of thought process or cognitions, which underlie it
- an approach known as cognitive learning theory. They have developed approaches that
focus on unseen mental processes that occur during learning, rather than concentrating solely
on external stimulus response and reinforcements. According to this point of view, people and
even animals develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer upon making a
response.
Cognitive learning includes:
1. Observation learning
2. Insight learning
3. Latent learning

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
According to psychologists, Albert Bandura and colleagues, a major part of human learning
consist of observational learning - learning through observing the behavior of another person
called model.
Observational learning is otherwise called as social learning theory or vicarious learning
(learning through indirect experience). The advocates of this theory emphasize that most of
what we learn in acquired through simply watching and listening to other people. Children
from the very beginning keenly observe the behavior of people nearest to them like parents,
members of the family, teachers and older members of society and others.
The power of observational learning can be confirmed through laboratory experiment as well
as through observation in our daily life. A child, who sees his father throwing utensils around
simply because he is not served food of his taste, learns such behavior and imitates it in
similar circumstances. The persons who behavior he observes and often referred to as
modeling.
According to Bandura observational learning takes place in four steps.
1. Paying attending and perceiving the most critical features of another person‟s
behavior
 2. Remembering the behavior
3. Reproducing the action
4. Being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior.

With successes being reinforced and failures punished, many important skills are learned
through observational process. Observational learning is particularly important in acquiring
skills in which shaping is inappropriate. Not all behavior that we witness is learned or carried
out. One crucial factor determines whether we later imitate a model in the consequences of
the model‟s behavior. Models who are rewarded for behaving in a particular way are more apt
to be imitated than models who receive punishment. Though, observing the punishment of a
model does not necessarily stop observers form learning the behavior. Observers can still
recount the model‟s behavior-they are just less apt to perform it. Observational learning is at
the center of a controversy regarding the effects of effects exposure to violence and sex in the
media.

INSIGHT LEARNING
An insight is a new way to organize stimuli or a new approach to solve a problem. A student
struggling with a mathematical problem who suddenly sees how to solve it without having
been taught additional methods has had an insight. Gestalt psychologist tried to interpret
learning as a purposive, exploratory and creative enterprise, instead of a trial and error or a
simple S-R mechanism. A learner while learning always perceives the situation as a whole
and after seeing and evaluating the different relationships, takes the proper decision
intelligently.
Gestalt psychology is used the term „insight‟ to describe the perception of the whole situation
by the learner, and his intelligence in responding to the proper relationships. Kohler (1925)
used the term „insight‟ first of all to describe the learning of his apes. During the period (1913-
1917) he conducted many experiments on chimpanzees in the Canary Island and embodies
his finding in his book (Ibid) demonstrating learning by insight.
In one experiment, Kohler put the chimpanzee Sultan (Kohler‟s most intelligent Chimpanzee),
inside a cage. The chimpanzee tried to reach toe banana by jumping but could not succeed
suddenly; he got an idea and used the box as a jumping platform by placing it just below the
banana.
In a more complicated experiment, a banana was placed outside the cage of the chimpanzee,
two sticks one longer than the other too. One stick hollow at one end so that the other stick
could be fitted into to form a longer stick, were placed inside the cage. The banana was so
kept that it could not be picked up by anyone of the stick, the chimpanzee first tried to reach
out to the banana using these sticks one after the other but failed. Suddenly, the animal had a
brighter idea after a pause it joined the two stick together and reached the banana.
A moderate degree of insight is so common in human learning that we tend to take it for
granted. Occasionally insight comes dramatically, and then we have what has been
appropriately called an „aha‟ experience. The solution of a problem becomes suddenly clear,
as through a light had been turned on in the darkness. This experience usually comes with
puzzles or a riddle that makes good party games, precisely people enjoy the experience of
insight when it comes.
When a theft case is reported, the police comes to the place of occurrence, collects data,
observe the whole situation, workout in his mind all the clues to catch hold the thief and finally
acts upon the solution.
The experiment demonstrated the role of intelligence and cognitive abilities in proper learning
such as problem solving. These apes reacted gently by
a. Identifying the problem
b. Organizing their perceptual field
c. Using insight
The variables that influence insight learning are not well understood but a few general remarks
are
1. Insight depends upon the arrangement of the problem situation
2. Once a solution occurs with insight, it can be repeated promptly
3. A solution achieved with insight can be applied in new situation

Emphasis upon insightful learning encourages problem solving behavior.

Prepared by
George Varied Thekkan
Department of Psychology
Acharya Institute of Graduate Studies
Bangalore – 560 107