Friction factor

Name: Keshav Sobania

Group Members: Md Sibtain Raza, Aditya Mehta

Group No. G

Experiment no: 02

Table Of Contents
Aim

Apparatus

Background

Procedure

Observation and Calculation

Results

Conclusions

References

Aim

1
To determine the relation between Reynolds number and friction factor for flow of water through
a circular pipe in the turbulent flow regime and compare it with theoretical predictions.

Apparatus
●​ Five test sections: Made-up of circular pipes of different internal diameters, each with
two pressure tapings with sufficient calming zones on the upstream and downstream
sides.
●​ Differential Pressure (D.P.) cell: To measure the pressure drop across the test section.
●​ Water circulation system: Consisting of a water reservoir and a centrifugal pump with a
bypass line.
●​ Flowmeter: To measure the flow rate of water through the test section.

Background
In fluid flow through pipes, shear stresses primarily develop near the pipe walls, resisting the
motion of the fluid. These stresses act in opposition to the fluid flow, causing energy loss, often
referred to as frictional losses. These losses create a pressure gradient (dP/dx), describing how
the pressure decreases along the pipe due to friction. As flow velocity increases or the surface
roughness of the pipe increases, this pressure drop becomes more significant.

In a circular pipe, when an incompressible fluid flows steadily without any external forces, all
the pressure loss is attributed to friction. This frictional pressure loss intensifies at higher
velocities and on pipes with rougher internal surfaces.

The Reynolds number (Re) is a key parameter in distinguishing flow regimes. When Re exceeds
3000, the flow enters the turbulent regime, where the fluid motion becomes chaotic, leading to
greater frictional losses than in laminar flow. Even with pipes made of the same material, such as
stainless steel, and with the same diameter, differences in internal roughness can cause variations
in pressure loss. Rougher pipes lead to increased turbulence near the walls, raising the friction
factor and causing greater pressure drops compared to smoother pipes.

Friction Factor:
The friction factor (f) is a dimensionless parameter that quantifies the resistance a fluid faces as it
flows through a pipe due to friction. This factor is crucial for evaluating pressure losses in fluid
systems and depends on both the Reynolds number and the roughness of the pipe’s internal
surface.

In the turbulent flow regime, the observed friction factor (f_obs) can be computed using the
following formula:

2
 ∆𝑃*𝐷
𝑓𝑜𝑏𝑠 = 2
2*𝐿*𝑈 *ρ

Where:

●​ ΔP = Pressure drop across the pipe

●​ D = Pipe diameter
●​ L = Length of the pipe
●​ ρ = Fluid density
●​ U = Flow velocity

For smooth pipes, the theoretical friction factor (f_th) for turbulent flow can be predicted using
the empirical relationship:
0.046
𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 0.2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 100000 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
(𝑅𝑒)

This experiment targets turbulent flow, where surface roughness and the diameter of the pipe
have a considerable effect on friction. By determining the friction factor for different flow
conditions, the experiment aims to gain insights into the efficiency of fluid transport systems and
predict pressure losses under varied conditions, such as different pipe diameters and roughness
levels.

Procedure
●​ Fill the reservoir with water to about 90% of its capacity.
●​ Select the test section by opening the ball valves leading to that test section, keeping the
ball valves leading to all other test sections closed.
●​ Switch on the power supply of the pump, keeping the valve on the bypass line fully open.
Open the valve on the suction side of the pump slowly.
●​ Slowly close the valve on the bypass line to get the desired flow rate through the test
section.
●​ Remove air bubbles, if any, from the pressure tapping lines and connect them to the D.P.
cell to measure the pressure drop across the test section.
●​ Adjust the flow rate of water through the test section by manipulating the ball valve on
the bypass line as well as the ball valve at the entrance of the test section. Allow
sufficient time for the D.P. cell reading to stabilize, and note the pressure drop across the
test section as indicated by the D.P. cell.
●​ Note down the flow rate of water indicated by the flowmeter.
●​ Repeat steps (6) and (7) for at least 15 different flow rates. Take the last reading at the
maximum possible flow rate through the test section.

3
Observation and Results

D1 = 7.3 mm
Flow rate Flow rate delta_P Velocity log(f_ob
(Re) f_obs f_theor log(Re) log(f_theo)
in LPM m^3/s (kPa) (m/s) s)
0.00035166 8.402250 61336.42 0.005067 0.005072 0.924395 -2.29516 -2.2947858
21.1 84.3
66667 076 556 932026 407535 6033 9219 61
0.00032833 7.844754 57266.71 0.005186 0.005142 0.894579 -2.28514 -2.2888226
19.7 75.2
33333 811 012 250688 536523 3742 6495 15
0.00030666 7.327080 53487.68 0.005217 0.005213 0.864930 -2.28252 -2.2828929
18.4 66
66667 635 864 667582 232157 971 3593 35
0.00029166 6.968690 50871.44 0.005243 0.005265 0.843151 -2.28035 -2.2785369
17.5 60
66667 822 3 7656 783754 1967 673 8
0.00027166 6.490837 47383.11 0.005298 0.005341 0.812300 -2.27582 -2.2723668
16.3 52.6
66667 737 548 813725 129515 7524 1347 91
0.00025666 6.132447 44766.86 0.005383 0.005402 0.787633 -2.26895 -2.2674335
15.4 47.7
66667 923 984 256266 148096 8688 4945 14
0.00023833 5.694415 41569.23 0.005366 0.005482 0.755449 -2.27032 -2.2609965
14.3 41
33333 928 628 361176 812858 1855 0101 77
5.136920 37499.52 0.005516 0.005596 0.710702 -2.25831 -2.2520473
12.9 0.000215 34.3
663 084 743813 966249 8583 7183 12
4.659067 34011.19 0.005650 0.005707 0.668299 -2.24790 -2.2435665
11.7 0.000195 28.9
578 332 595724 336221 0098 5764 42
4.300677 31394.94 0.005805 0.005799 0.633536 -2.23615 -2.2366141
10.8 0.00018 25.3
764 768 520025 437587 9035 8873 21
0.00016333 3.902466 28488.00 0.005936 0.005913 0.591339 -2.22650 -2.2281745
9.8 21.3
33333 86 808 022921 23876 2237 4431 85
0.00014833 3.544077 25871.76 0.005879 0.006028 0.549503 -2.23066 -2.2198073
8.9 17.4
33333 046 244 45881 269071 1547 2648 71
3.106045 22674.12 0.005851 0.006189 0.492207 -2.23276 -2.2083482
7.8 0.00013 13.3
052 888 006126 44502 7507 9447 9
0.00010333 2.468907 18023.02 0.006057 0.006480 0.392504 -2.21769 -2.1884077
6.2 8.7
33333 605 552 647403 25793 8375 6009 08
2.030875 14825.39 0.005865 0.006738 0.307683 -2.23169 -2.1714434
5.1 0.000085 5.7
611 196 467337 397008 3241 7379 05

Table 1: For the pipe with diameter D = 7.3 mm.

4
Figure 1: Log of Friction factor vs Reynolds number from Table 1.

Figure 2: Plot between f and Re For the pipe with D = 7.3 mm.

5
 D2 = 10.7 mm
Flow rate Flow rate Velocity Reynolds log(f_ob
delta_P f_obs f_theor log(Re) log(f_theo)
in LPM m^3/s (m/s) Number s)
5.727298 61282.09 0.006353 0.005073 4.787333 -2.19699 -2.2947088
30.9 0.000515 33.5
153 024 317411 306699 57 9447 82
5.338064 57117.28 0.006484 0.005145 4.756767 -2.18815 -2.2885956
28.8 0.00048 29.7
298 799 017507 224347 578 5821 84
5.060040 54142.42 0.006511 0.005200 4.733537 -2.18631 -2.2839497
27.3 0.000455 26.8
116 924 517393 56207 738 7795 16
0.00042666 4.744946 50770.92 0.006493 0.005267 4.705615 -2.18753 -2.2783651
25.6 23.5
66667 043 266 22776 867229 056 9363 79
0.00039333 4.374247 46804.44 0.006469 0.005354 4.670287 -2.18909 -2.2712995
23.6 19.9
33333 133 432 962679 271792 094 8225 87
3.947943 42242.99 0.006425 0.005465 4.625754 -2.19206 -2.2623931
21.3 0.000355 16.1
387 424 980069 210485 694 0626 07
0.00033333 3.706989 39664.78 0.006428 0.005534 4.598405 -2.19189 -2.2569231
20 14.2
33333 096 333 372848 479899 086 8942 86
0.00031333 3.484569 37284.89 0.006455 0.005603 4.571532 -2.19007 -2.2515487
18.8 12.6
33333 75 633 465309 39507 94 2448 56
0.00028333 3.150940 33715.06 0.006516 0.005717 4.527824 -2.18599 -2.2428069
17 10.4
33333 731 583 407 326962 012 1798 71
0.00025666 2.854381 30541.88 0.006490 0.005831 4.484895 -2.18774 -2.2342213
15.4 8.5
66667 604 316 082076 478374 811 9811 31
2.613427 27963.67 0.006557 0.005935 4.446594 -2.18323 -2.2265610
14.1 0.000235 7.2
313 224 933012 249649 203 3024 09
0.00021666 2.409542 25782.10 0.006536 0.006032 4.411318 -2.18468 -2.2195058
13 6.1
66667 912 916 057067 455725 443 4165 57
2.112983 22608.92 0.006409 0.006193 4.354279 -2.19317 -2.2080981
11.4 0.00019 4.6
785 65 451034 010884 942 9166 57
1.890564 20229.03 0.006439 0.006332 4.305975 -2.19112 -2.1984372
10.2 0.00017 3.7
439 95 825294 318916 262 5914 21
9.2 0.0001533 3.1 1.70521 18245.80 0.00663 0.0064 4.261 -2.1 -2.18947

Table 2: For the pipe with diameter D = 10.7 mm.

6
Figure 3: Friction factor vs Reynolds number from Table 2.

Figure 4: Plot between f and Re For the pipe with D = 10.7 mm.

7
 D3 = 10.7 mm
Flow rate Flow rate Velocity Reynolds log(f_ob
delta_P f_obs f_theor log(Re) log(f_theo)
in LPM m^3/s (m/s) Number s)
5.671693 61282.09 0.006961 0.005073 4.787333 -2.15726 -2.2947088
30.6 0.00051 36
317 024 973291 306699 57 7647 82
0.00047833 5.319529 57117.28 0.007034 0.005145 4.756767 -2.15274 -2.2885956
28.7 32
33333 352 799 915575 224347 578 111 84
0.00045166 5.022970 54142.42 0.007027 0.005200 4.733537 -2.15322 -2.2839497
27.1 28.5
66667 225 924 146105 56207 738 1017 16
0.00042333 4.707876 50770.92 0.007101 0.005267 4.705615 -2.14867 -2.2783651
25.4 25.3
33333 152 266 102688 867229 056 4207 79
4.392782 46804.44 0.007156 0.005354 4.670287 -2.14527 -2.2712995
23.7 0.000395 22.2
079 432 96655 271792 094 1013 87
3.947943 42242.99 0.007144 0.005465 4.625754 -2.14603 -2.2623931
21.3 0.000355 17.9
387 424 412623 210485 694 3471 07
3.669919 39664.78 0.007205 0.005534 4.598405 -2.14233 -2.2569231
19.8 0.00033 15.6
205 333 546461 479899 086 3077 86
0.00031333 3.484569 37284.89 0.007172 0.005603 4.571532 -2.14431 -2.2515487
18.8 14
33333 75 633 739232 39507 94 4958 56
0.00028333 3.150940 33715.06 0.007268 0.005717 4.527824 -2.13856 -2.2428069
17 11.6
33333 731 583 300116 326962 012 7149 71
0.00025666 2.854381 30541.88 0.007253 0.005831 4.484895 -2.13944 -2.2342213
15.4 9.5
66667 604 316 621143 478374 811 5131 31
0.00023333 2.594892 27963.67 0.007206 0.005935 4.446594 -2.14228 -2.2265610
14 7.8
33333 367 224 281721 249649 203 8764 09
2.391007 25782.10 0.007181 0.006032 4.411318 -2.14376 -2.2195058
12.9 0.000215 6.6
967 916 864714 455725 443 278 57
0.00018666 2.075913 22608.92 0.007073 0.006193 4.354279 -2.15036 -2.2080981
11.2 4.9
66667 894 65 473645 010884 942 726 57
1.890564 20229.03 0.007136 0.006332 4.305975 -2.14654 -2.1984372
10.2 0.00017 4.1
439 95 022623 318916 262 3782 21
0.00015333 1.705214 18245.80 0.006632 0.006464 4.261162 -2.17834 -2.1894747
9.2 3.1
33333 984 033 217255 35574 918 1256 52

Table 3: For the pipe with diameter D = 10.7 mm.

8
Figure 5: Friction factor vs Reynolds number from Table 3.

Figure 6: Plot between f and Re for the pipe with D = 10.7mm

9
 D4 = 4.5 mm
Flow rate Flow rate Velocity Reynolds log(f_ob
delta_P f_obs f_theor log(Re) log(f_theo)
in LPM m^3/s (m/s) Number s)
1.571900 7073.553 0.005823 0.007813 3.849637 -2.23480 -2.1071696
1.5 0.000025 5.5
673 026 667308 224604 614 3443 91
0.00003166 1.991074 8959.833 0.006401 0.007452 3.952299 -2.19371 -2.1277021
1.9 9.7
666667 185 833 487736 428887 955 9082 59
0.00003833 2.410247 10846.11 0.006845 0.007173 4.035274 -2.16459 -2.1442970
2.3 15.2
333333 698 464 486233 035721 19 5699 06
0.00004333 2.724627 12260.82 0.007506 0.006999 4.088519 -2.12455 -2.1549461
2.6 21.3
333333 832 525 704028 288441 702 0707 09
3.143801 14147.10 0.007385 0.006801 4.150667 -2.13162 -2.1673756
3 0.00005 27.9
345 605 468996 80708 609 1921 9
3.458181 15561.81 0.008028 0.006673 4.192060 -2.09534 -2.1756542
3.3 0.000055 36.7
48 666 87266 37873 294 543 27
0.00006166 3.877354 17448.09 0.008144 0.006522 4.241748 -2.08914 -2.1855917
3.7 46.8
666667 992 746 394283 411814 079 121 84
4.086941 18391.23 0.008317 0.006454 4.264610 -2.08001 -2.1901643
3.9 0.000065 53.1
749 787 287092 099246 962 8308 61
0.00006833 4.296528 19334.37 0.009793 0.006389 4.286330 -2.00907 -2.1945082
4.1 69.1
333333 505 827 247253 866569 211 3281 11
4.401321 19805.94 0.010304 0.006359 4.296795 -1.98695 -2.1966012
4.2 0.00007 76.3
883 847 86585 144633 645 7657 97
4.715702 21220.65 0.010976 0.006272 4.326758 -1.95952 -2.2025939
4.5 0.000075 93.3
018 908 7305 000121 868 6998 42
0.00008166 5.134875 23106.93 0.011202 0.006166 4.363742 -1.95068 -2.2099906
4.9 112.9
666667 53 989 58292 082694 435 1833 55
5.344462 24050.08 0.011046 0.006116 4.381116 -1.95677 -2.2134654
5.1 0.000085 120.6
287 029 46551 944295 531 6659 74
0.00008833 5.554049 24993.22 0.010991 0.006070 4.397822 -1.95893 -2.2168066
5.3 129.6
333333 043 069 82101 065632 224 0352 13
0.00009166 5.763635 25936.36 0.010821 0.006025 4.413909 -1.96572 -2.2200239
5.5 137.4
666667 799 11 25769 263201 044 2261 77

10
 Figure 7: Friction factor vs Reynolds number from Table 4

Figure 8: Plot between f and Re for the pipe with D = 10.7mm

11
 Figure 9: Plot between pressure difference and flow rate for the all pipe

Calculation
2
●​ The cross-sectional area of the pipe [𝑚 ]
2
π*𝐷
○​ 𝐴 = 4
𝑚
●​ Average velocity of water through the pipe [ 𝑠
]
𝑄
○​ 𝑈 = 𝐴
●​ Reynolds number (Dimensionless number)
ρ*𝑈*𝐷
○​ 𝑅𝑒 = µ
●​ Observed Friction factor
∆𝑃*𝐷
○​ 𝑓𝑜𝑏𝑠 = 2
2*𝐿*𝑈 *ρ
●​ Theoretical Friction factor
0.046
○​ 𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 0.2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 100000 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
(𝑅𝑒)

All numerical calculations are carried out in Google sheet.

12
Discussion
1. Trend of Reynolds Number and Friction Factor:

●​ For all pipe diameters, as the Reynolds number (Re) increases, the observed friction
factor (fobs​) generally decreases, aligning with the expected behavior for turbulent flow,
where higher flow rates (corresponding to higher Reynolds numbers) lead to a thinner
boundary layer, thus reducing friction.
●​ At smaller Reynolds numbers, the observed friction factor is higher, indicating that
frictional losses are more significant in lower-speed flows.

2. Comparison Between Different Pipe Diameters:

●​ For D1 = 7.3 mm: The Reynolds number range is 14825 to 61336. The friction factor
values remain fairly close to the theoretical predictions throughout the experiment, with
slight deviations, especially at lower Reynolds numbers.
●​ For D2 = 10.7 mm: The Reynolds number range is 18246 to 61282. The friction factor
observed is consistently slightly higher than the theoretical values, especially at higher
Reynolds numbers. This suggests a possible influence of pipe roughness or flow
disturbances in larger-diameter pipes.
●​ For D3 = 10.7 mm (identical diameter to D2, different conditions): The results follow a
similar pattern as D2, but the observed friction factors are slightly higher than those for
D2 across the same Reynolds number range. At Re=61282, fobs=0.00696, higher than
the theoretical value of 0.00507, indicating higher losses possibly due to additional flow
disturbances or roughness in the pipe.
●​ For D4 = 4.5 mm: This smaller diameter shows the largest deviation between f_obs​and
f_theor​. The observed friction factors are significantly higher than theoretical predictions
at low Reynolds numbers. For instance, at Re=7074, fobs=0.00582 compared to f_theor =
0.00781. However, at higher Reynolds numbers, the observed friction factors remain
higher than theoretical values, with the largest discrepancy seen at Re=25936, where
fobs=0.01082 compared to f_theor = 0.00602.

3. Friction Factor Variability:

Across different flow rates, the variability between the observed and theoretical friction factors is
greater for smaller pipe diameters (like D4) than for larger pipes (D2 and D3). This suggests that
smaller pipes are more sensitive to surface roughness and entrance effects, which could increase
frictional losses beyond what theoretical models predict.

4. Logarithmic Relations:

When plotted on a log-log scale (log Re vs. log f_obs​and log f_theor, the data aligns well with
theoretical trends, especially for larger diameters (D2 and D3). The smaller diameter pipe (D4)
shows more deviation from the theoretical line, indicating that at very small diameters, the flow

13
may be affected by additional factors such as pipe roughness, measurement precision, and
entrance effects.

5. Effect of Pipe Roughness:

The discrepancies between f_obs​and f_theo​are greater at higher Reynolds numbers, particularly
for larger pipes (D2 and D3). This suggests that the theoretical predictions, which often assume a
smooth pipe, may not fully account for the roughness in the experimental setup. The roughness
of the pipe's inner surface plays a more significant role in turbulent flow, leading to
higher-than-expected friction losses.

General Trends Across All Pipe Diameters

1.​ Pressure Drop (ΔP): Across all diameters, as the flow rate increases, the pressure drop
consistently increases. This indicates that higher flow rates lead to more resistance within
the pipes, requiring greater pressure to maintain the flow. The smallest diameter pipe (D4
= 4.5 mm) exhibits the largest pressure drops, as smaller pipes create more resistance.
2.​ Reynolds Number (Re): The Reynolds number generally increases with increasing flow
rate for each diameter. Reynolds numbers for all pipes are in the turbulent regime (Re >
4,000), with smaller diameters (D1 and D4) reaching relatively lower Reynolds numbers
compared to larger pipes (D2 and D3) for the same flow rate. This shows the strong
dependence of flow characteristics on pipe diameter, where smaller pipes generate more
friction and turbulence earlier.
3.​ Velocity: As the flow rate increases, velocity increases for all diameters, as expected.
However, smaller pipes (D1 and D4) have much higher velocities at lower flow rates than
larger ones, especially evident in D4. This is due to the reduced cross-sectional area,
which constricts the flow and speeds up the fluid.
4.​ Friction Factor (f_obs vs. f_theor): The observed friction factor (f_obs) is generally
close to the theoretical values (f_theor) derived from the Moody chart. There are slight
deviations, particularly in smaller diameter pipes where the observed friction factors tend
to be higher. The deviation between f_obs and f_theor is more pronounced in the smallest
pipe (D4), which suggests that roughness or flow disturbances might have a more
significant effect in smaller pipes.

14
Observations for Each Diameter
D1 = 7.3 mm

●​ Flow Rate Range: 5.1 to 21.1 LPM.

●​ Pressure Drop: Ranges from 5.7 kPa at a flow rate of 5.1 LPM to 84.3 kPa at 21.1 LPM.
The relatively high pressure drop at low flow rates indicates greater resistance in this
smaller pipe.
●​ Reynolds Number: Ranges from 14,825 to 61,336, which falls within the turbulent
regime. The Reynolds number rises steeply with flow rate due to the narrow diameter that
leads to higher velocities.
●​ Velocity: The velocity at the highest flow rate is 8.40 m/s, while at the lowest flow rate
it’s 2.03 m/s. The velocities in D1 are higher compared to larger pipes for similar flow
rates, showing that narrow pipes accelerate fluid flow.
●​ Friction Factor: f_obs is close to f_theor for all data points, with minor deviations at
lower flow rates.

D2 = 10.7 mm

●​ Flow Rate Range: 9.2 to 30.9 LPM.

●​ Pressure Drop: Ranges from 3.1 kPa at 9.2 LPM to 33.5 kPa at 30.9 LPM, which is
considerably lower than in D1 for similar flow rates, indicating lower resistance.
●​ Reynolds Number: Ranges from 18,245 to 61,282, indicating turbulent flow. The
Reynolds number at the highest flow rate is similar to D1, but D2 achieves this with
lower velocity due to its larger diameter.
●​ Velocity: Maximum velocity is 5.73 m/s at 30.9 LPM. This is lower compared to D1,
reflecting the greater cross-sectional area.
●​ Friction Factor: f_obs slightly exceeds f_theor at lower flow rates, but the difference is
minor. The two values converge more closely at higher flow rates.

D3 = 10.7 mm (Second Instance)

●​ Flow Rate Range: 9.2 to 30.6 LPM.

●​ Pressure Drop: Ranges from 3.1 kPa at 9.2 LPM to 36 kPa at 30.6 LPM. Compared to
D2, the pressure drop is slightly higher, which could indicate either a difference in pipe
surface roughness or other minor disturbances.
●​ Reynolds Number: Ranges from 18,245 to 61,282, which is identical to D2, as expected
due to the same diameter.
●​ Velocity: The maximum velocity is 5.67 m/s at the highest flow rate, almost identical to
D2, confirming the consistency in pipe diameter.
●​ Friction Factor: f_obs is slightly higher than in D2 for comparable flow rates,
suggesting slightly greater resistance in this case, though the overall trend remains
similar.

D4 = 4.5 mm

●​ Flow Rate Range: 1.5 to 5.5 LPM.

15
●​ Pressure Drop: Ranges from 5.5 kPa at the lowest flow rate (1.5 LPM) to 137.4 kPa at
5.5 LPM. The sharp rise in pressure drop reflects the significant resistance encountered in
the smallest pipe. At the highest flow rate, D4 experiences the largest pressure drop
among all diameters.
●​ Reynolds Number: Ranges from 7,073 to 25,936, which is significantly lower than in
the larger pipes. However, the flow remains turbulent for most of the dataset.
●​ Velocity: The maximum velocity is 5.76 m/s at 5.5 LPM, similar to D1 at higher flow
rates. This high velocity in such a small pipe results from the constricted cross-sectional
area.
●​ Friction Factor: f_obs shows a notable deviation from f_theor, particularly at higher
flow rates, indicating increased turbulence and roughness effects that are more
pronounced in smaller pipes.

16
Conclusion
This experiment highlights the significant impact of pipe diameter on fluid flow characteristics,
including pressure drop, velocity, Reynolds number, and friction factor. Several key conclusions
can be drawn from the analysis of the four pipe diameters:

1.​ Pressure Drop: Smaller diameter pipes (especially D4 = 4.5 mm) experience much higher
pressure drops than larger pipes (D2 and D3 = 10.7 mm), even at similar flow rates. This
is because smaller pipes offer greater resistance to flow, leading to higher energy losses.
This finding suggests that larger pipes are more efficient for minimizing pressure loss in
fluid transport systems.
2.​ Velocity: As pipe diameter decreases, the velocity of the fluid increases significantly for a
given flow rate. For instance, in the smallest pipe (D4), fluid velocity at relatively low
flow rates was comparable to or higher than velocities in larger pipes at much higher flow
rates. This demonstrates how reduced cross-sectional area constraints fluid, leading to
accelerated flow.
3.​ Reynolds Number: All pipes in the experiment operated in the turbulent flow regime,
with the Reynolds number increasing as flow rate increased. However, smaller pipes
transitioned into turbulence at lower flow rates due to the higher velocities they induce.
This shows the relationship between pipe size and flow regime, where larger pipes allow
for a more gradual increase in Reynolds number compared to smaller ones.
4.​ Friction Factor: The observed friction factor (f_obs) closely follows the theoretical
friction factor (f_theor) derived from the Moody chart for most pipes, though smaller
pipes (particularly D4) exhibit more deviation. This suggests that factors like surface
roughness and flow disturbances have a greater impact on friction losses in narrower
pipes.
5.​ Efficiency Considerations: From an efficiency standpoint, larger diameter pipes offer
distinct advantages in terms of lower pressure losses, slower fluid velocities, and more
predictable frictional behavior. Smaller pipes, on the other hand, can introduce
inefficiencies due to higher velocities, greater pressure drops, and increased turbulence,
especially at moderate to high flow rates.

In conclusion, pipe diameter is a critical factor in determining the overall efficiency and behavior
of a fluid flow system. For applications where minimizing pressure loss and ensuring predictable
flow characteristics are essential, larger diameter pipes are generally more suitable. Smaller pipes
may be used when space or material constraints exist, but the trade-offs in terms of increased
pressure losses and turbulence must be carefully considered.

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Industrial Applications

Efficient Pipeline Design: Understanding the friction factor helps engineers design pipelines that
minimize friction-related energy losses. This leads to more efficient transport of fluids like water,
oil, or gas, reducing operational costs in industries such as petrochemicals, water distribution,
and power generation.

Energy Optimization: In turbulent flow conditions, the friction factor directly impacts the
pumping power required to maintain fluid flow. Accurate predictions of this relationship allow
industries to optimize energy consumption, ensuring that pumps and compressors are sized
correctly for maximum efficiency.

Pipe Material Selection: Knowledge of how the friction factor changes with Reynolds number
helps in selecting appropriate pipe materials and surface treatments. Industries can choose
materials that reduce roughness, lowering friction losses, and prolonging the lifespan of
pipelines.

Operational Safety: Accurate understanding of flow behavior in pipes is crucial for ensuring safe
operating conditions in critical systems like cooling circuits in nuclear plants, fire suppression
systems, or chemical processing facilities. Misjudging friction factors could lead to dangerous
pressure drops or failures.

Maintenance and Troubleshooting: Analyzing friction factor trends can help in diagnosing issues
such as pipe scaling, fouling, or blockages in industrial systems. By comparing actual friction
factor measurements to theoretical predictions, maintenance teams can detect irregularities and
address them before they lead to costly breakdowns.

References
1.​ Lab Manual

Acknowledgment
I would like to thank TA and Professor Karthik Subramaniam Pushpavanam for their essential
guidance and support for this experiment. Their ideas and comments made it possible to finish
this work. I would also like to thank my group mates, Aditya and Sibtain for the great help in this
collaboration and teamwork through which this project was quite productive and enjoyable.

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