Question 1

Show that (ℤ, +)forms an Abelian Group.

Repeated University Question

Step 1: What is the Question Asking?

The examiner is asking you to verify whether the set of integers together with the operation of
addition satisfies all the properties (axioms) of a group.
Remember:
A Group must satisfy four properties:
1. Closure
2. Associativity
3. Identity
4. Inverse
If it also satisfies
5. Commutativity
then it is called an Abelian Group.
So, in this question, we must verify all five properties.

Step 2: What is (ℤ, +)?

Here,
ℤ = {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … }
Operation:
+
means ordinary addition.
Examples:
2+5 = 7
(−3) + 4 = 1
5 + (−7) = −2

Step 3: Verify the Group Axioms

(i) Closure Property

Definition
A set is closed under an operation if performing the operation on any two elements of the set always
gives another element of the same set.
Mathematically,
If
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ
then
𝑎+𝑏 ∈ℤ
Verification
Take any two integers.
Example 1
4 + 7 = 11
11 is an integer.
Example 2
−5 + 9 = 4
4 is an integer.
Example 3
−6 + (−8) = −14
-14 is also an integer.
Every time we add two integers, the answer is still an integer.
Hence,
(ℤ, +)
satisfies closure.

(ii) Associative Property

Definition
Changing the grouping does not change the answer.
Mathematically, (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)

Verification
Take
𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = 7

Left side
(2 + 5) + 7
=7+7
= 14
Right side
2 + (5 + 7)
= 2 + 12
= 14
Both sides are equal.
Therefore, addition on integers is associative.

Important Note
Students often confuse associative with commutative.
Associative changes the brackets.
Example (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
Commutative changes the order.
Example 𝑎+𝑏 =𝑏+𝑎
(iii) Identity Element
Definition
An identity element is an element which does not change any member of the set.
Mathematically,
There exists 𝑒∈ℤ

such that 𝑎+𝑒 =𝑒+𝑎 =𝑎

Verification
The identity element is 0

because
5+0=5
0+5=5
Similarly,
−12 + 0 = −12
Thus, 0 is the identity element.

(iv) Inverse Property

Definition
Every element must have an inverse inside the same set.
Mathematically,
For every
𝑎∈ℤ
there exists
−𝑎
such that
𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0

Verification
Example
For 5 inverse is −5
because
5 + (−5) = 0
Another example
For −12 inverse is 12
because
−12 + 12 = 0
Hence every integer has an additive inverse.

(v) Commutative Property

Definition Changing the order does not change the answer.
Mathematically, 𝑎+𝑏 =𝑏+𝑎
Verification
Take
4 + 7 = 11
and
7 + 4 = 11
Both are equal.
Therefore, addition on integers is commutative.

Step 4: Final Conclusion

Since
• Closure ✓
• Associativity ✓
• Identity ✓
• Inverse ✓
• Commutativity ✓
are all satisfied,
(ℤ, +)
is a Group. Since it is also commutative, it is an Abelian Group

University Answer (Write in Exam)

Given: (ℤ, +)
To prove it is an Abelian Group.
1. Closure: For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℤ. Hence closed.
2. Associativity: Addition of integers is associative.
(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)

3. Identity: Identity element is 0.

𝑎+0=0+𝑎 =𝑎

4. Inverse: For every integer 𝑎, inverse is −𝑎.

𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0

5. Commutativity: 𝑎+𝑏 =𝑏+𝑎

Hence, (ℤ, +) is an Abelian Group.

Exam Tip
For any question asking "Show that (𝑆,∗)is a group", always follow the same order:
1. Closure
2. Associativity
3. Identity
4. Inverse
5. (If asked) Commutativity
This sequence is accepted in almost every university and helps you score full marks.
Question 2
How to Verify Whether a Given Algebraic Structure is a Monoid or a Group?

Frequently Asked in University Exams

Step 1: Understand the Question

Suppose the examiner gives:
Verify whether (𝑆,∗)is a Monoid.
or
Verify whether (𝑆,∗)is a Group.
What should you do?
Never start randomly.
There is a fixed checklist.

Step 2: Learn the Hierarchy

Every Group is first a Monoid, and every Monoid is first a Semigroup.

Binary Operation
│
▼
Semigroup
│
▼
Monoid
│
▼
Group
So, to verify a Group, we must first verify the properties of a Monoid.

Step 3: Properties Required

Property Semigroup Monoid Group

Closure ✔ ✔ ✔

Associativity ✔ ✔ ✔

Identity ✘ ✔ ✔

Inverse ✘ ✘ ✔
If the operation is also commutative, then it is called an Abelian Group.

Verification Algorithm (Golden Rule)

To verify a Monoid
Check: Closure Associativity Identity
To verify a Group
Check: Closure Associativity Identity Inverse

Example 1
Verify whether (ℕ, +)is a Monoid.

Step 1: Closure
Take any two natural numbers.
Example
3+5=8

8 is also a natural number.

Hence,
Closure holds.

Step 2: Associativity
Addition satisfies
(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)

Example
(2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + (3 + 4) = 9

Hence associative.

Step 3: Identity

The identity element for addition is

Now ask yourself:

Is 0 a natural number?

This depends on the definition used.

• If your syllabus defines ℕ = {0,1,2, … }, then 0 belongs to ℕand identity exists.

• If ℕ = {1,2,3, … }, then 0 is not included, so identity does not exist.

In most MAKAUT mathematics courses, ℕis taken as including 0.

Therefore,

Identity exists.
Conclusion
Closure ✔
Associativity ✔
Identity ✔
Hence,
(ℕ, +)

is a Monoid.

Is it a Group?
Now check inverse.
Take
5

Its inverse should be

−5

But
−5 ∉ ℕ

Therefore inverse does not exist.

Hence
(ℕ, +)

is NOT a Group.

Example 2

Verify whether (ℤ, +)is a Group.

Closure
Take
−5 + 8 = 3

Still an integer.
✔

Associativity
(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)

Identity
Identity
0

belongs to
ℤ

Inverse
Inverse of
5

is
−5

which also belongs to

ℤ

Conclusion
All four properties hold.
Therefore
(ℤ, +)

is a Group.
Since
𝑎+𝑏 =𝑏+𝑎

it is also an Abelian Group.

Example 3

Verify whether (ℤ,×)is a Group.

Closure
3 × 4 = 12

Associativity
Multiplication is associative.
✔

Identity

Identity is
1

Inverse
Now check inverse.
Take
2

Inverse should be
1
2

But
1
∉ℤ
2

Hence inverse does not exist.

Conclusion
Not a Group.
It is only a Monoid.

Example 4

Verify whether (ℝ − {𝟎},×)is a Group.

Closure
Take
2 × 5 = 10

Still a non-zero real number.

✔

Associativity
Multiplication is associative.
✔

Identity
Identity is
1

Inverse
Take
5

Inverse
1
5

belongs to
ℝ − {0}

Conclusion

It is a Group.

Since multiplication of real numbers is commutative,

it is an Abelian Group.

One More Example

Verify whether (ℕ,×)is a Group.

Closure

3 × 5 = 15

Associativity

✔
Identity

Identity is

Inverse

Inverse of

is
1
2

But
1
∉ℕ
2

Final Conclusion

It is Monoid, not Group.

Comparison Table

Algebraic Structure Closure Associative Identity Inverse

Semigroup ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘

Monoid ✔ ✔ ✔ ✘

Group ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Abelian Group ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ + Commutative

Common Mistakes
 Mistake 1

Students immediately write

"It is a group."

without checking the four properties.

Mistake 2

Forgetting to check whether the identity belongs to the given set.

Example:

For (ℕ, +), identity is 0. If the definition of ℕexcludes 0, then it is not a monoid.

Mistake 3
Checking inverse incorrectly.
Example:
Inverse of 2 under multiplication is
1
2

If
1
2

is not in the given set,

then inverse does not exist.

Examination Trick (Golden Algorithm)

Whenever the examiner writes:
Verify whether (𝑆,∗)is a Monoid/Group.
Always draw this table:
Property Verified?
Closure ✔/✘
Associativity ✔/✘
Identity ✔/✘
Inverse ✔/✘
Then conclude:
• All first three properties satisfied → Monoid

• All four properties satisfied → Group

• All four + Commutative → Abelian Group

 Question 3
Distinguish between Ring, Integral Domain and Field with Suitable Examples.

Frequently Asked in MAKAUT

Step 1: Why Do We Need These Structures?

Suppose we have the set of integers ℤ.

We can perform two operations:

• Addition (+)

• Multiplication (×)

Can we study these operations systematically?

Yes. Mathematicians introduced three important algebraic structures:

1. Ring

2. Integral Domain

3. Field

Think of them as three levels of a building.

FIELD
▲
│
INTEGRAL DOMAIN
▲
│
RING

Every Field is an Integral Domain.

Every Integral Domain is a Ring.

But the reverse is not always true.

Step 2: What is a Ring?

Definition

A Ring is a set 𝑅together with two binary operations:

• Addition (+)

• Multiplication (×)

such that:
 Under Addition (+)

1. Closure

2. Associativity

3. Identity (0)

4. Additive inverse

5. Commutative

Therefore,
(𝑅, +)

forms an Abelian Group.

Under Multiplication (×)

Multiplication must satisfy:

• Closure

• Associativity

Multiplication need not be commutative.

Distributive Laws

Multiplication must distribute over addition.

Left distributive law

𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐

Right distributive law

(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐

Example of Ring

The set

(ℤ, +,×)

is a Ring.

Why?
Addition satisfies all group properties.

Multiplication is associative.

Distributive laws hold.

Hence,

ℤ is a Ring

Step 3: What is an Integral Domain?

An Integral Domain is a Ring with two extra conditions.

Condition 1

Multiplication is commutative.

𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎

Condition 2

There are no zero divisors.

What is a Zero Divisor?

This is one of the most important concepts.

A non-zero element 𝑎is called a zero divisor if there exists another non-zero element 𝑏such
that

𝑎𝑏 = 0

where

𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏 ≠ 0

Example of Zero Divisor

Consider

ℤ6 = {0,1,2,3,4,5}

Compute

2×3 =6
Modulo 6

6≡0

Thus

2×3 =0

although

2 ≠ 0,3 ≠ 0

Hence,

2 and 3 are zero divisors.

Therefore,

ℤ6 is NOT an Integral Domain

Example of Integral Domain

(ℤ, +,×)

Why?

Suppose

𝑎𝑏 = 0

Then either

𝑎=0

or

𝑏=0

No two non-zero integers multiply to zero.

Hence,

there are no zero divisors.

Therefore,

ℤ is an Integral Domain
Step 4: What is a Field?

A Field is an Integral Domain with one additional property.

Every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.

What is Multiplicative Inverse?

For a non-zero element

there exists

𝑎 −1

such that

𝑎𝑎−1 = 1

Example

Consider

Take

Its inverse is
1
5

Since
1
5× =1
5

and
1
∈ℚ
5
every non-zero rational number has an inverse.

Hence,

ℚ is a Field

Why is ℤNot a Field?

Take

Its inverse should be

1
2

But
1
∉ℤ
2

Therefore,

not every non-zero integer has a multiplicative inverse.

Hence,

ℤ is NOT a Field

Comparison Table

Integral
Property Ring Field
Domain

Two operations (+, ×) ✔ ✔ ✔

Addition forms Abelian Group ✔ ✔ ✔

Multiplication associative ✔ ✔ ✔

Multiplication commutative Not necessary ✔ ✔

Usually
Identity element (1) ✔ ✔
assumed*
 Integral
Property Ring Field
Domain

Zero divisors allowed ✔ ✘ ✘

Multiplicative inverse of every

✘ ✘ ✔
non-zero element

Note: Some textbooks define a ring without requiring a multiplicative identity. In most
[Link]/MAKAUT courses, rings are typically discussed with identity unless stated otherwise.

Examples

Structure Example

Ring (ℤ, +,×)

Integral Domain (ℤ, +,×)

Field (ℚ, +,×), (ℝ, +,×)

Counterexamples

Example 1

Is

ℤ6

an Integral Domain?

No.

Because

2×3 =0

(mod 6)

Zero divisors exist.

Example 2

Is

a Field?
 No.

Because
1
2−1 =
2

is not an integer.

University Style Answer

Ring

A Ring is an algebraic structure (𝑅, +,×)in which:

• (𝑅, +)is an Abelian group.

• Multiplication is associative.

• Distributive laws hold.

Example:

(ℤ, +,×)

Integral Domain

An Integral Domain is a commutative Ring with identity having no zero divisors.

Example:

(ℤ, +,×)

Field

A Field is an Integral Domain in which every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.

Example:

(ℚ, +,×)

Common Mistakes

Mistake 1

Students think every Ring is a Field.

This is false.
 Example:

is a Ring but not a Field.

Mistake 2

Students confuse additive inverse and multiplicative inverse.

Example:

For 5,

• Additive inverse = −5
1
• Multiplicative inverse = 5

These are different concepts.

Mistake 3

Students forget the concept of zero divisors.

Remember:

If

𝑎𝑏 = 0

with

𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏 ≠ 0,

then 𝑎and 𝑏are zero divisors.

Integral Domains and Fields cannot have zero divisors.

Memory Trick (Exam Tip)

Remember the hierarchy:

FIELD
(Every non-zero element
has multiplicative inverse)
▲
│
INTEGRAL DOMAIN
(No zero divisors + commutative)
 ▲
│
RING
(Addition + Multiplication)

One-line summary to remember:

• Ring → Addition behaves like an Abelian group; multiplication is associative.

• Integral Domain → Ring + No zero divisors + Commutative multiplication.

• Field → Integral Domain + Every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.

Question 4
Determine the Generators of a Cyclic Group

Frequently Asked in MAKAUT

Step 1: What is a Cyclic Group?

A cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element.

If one element can produce every element of the group, then that element is called a
generator.

Mathematically,

𝐺 = ⟨𝑎⟩

means the group 𝐺is generated by the element 𝑎.

Real-Life Analogy

Imagine a clock with 12 hours.

If you move one hour at a time, you can visit every hour:

0 → 1 → 2 → 3 → … → 11 → 0

So, moving by 1 generates the whole clock.

Hence, 1 is a generator.

Now suppose you move 2 hours at a time:

0 → 2 → 4 → 6 → 8 → 10 → 0

You never reach 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, or 11.

So 2 is not a generator.

This is exactly the idea behind generators.

Step 2: What is a Generator?

Suppose

𝐺 = ℤ𝑛 = {0,1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1}

with addition modulo 𝑛.

An element 𝑎is called a generator if repeated addition of 𝑎produces every element of ℤ𝑛 .

Example 1

Find the generators of ℤ𝟔

The elements are

{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Shortcut Method (Very Important)

Instead of checking every element manually, use this theorem.

Theorem

An element 𝑎is a generator of ℤ𝑛 if and only if

gcd (𝑎, 𝑛) = 1

That means 𝑎and 𝑛must be coprime.

Apply to ℤ𝟔

Element gcd(element,6) Generator?

0 6

1 1 ✔

2 2

3 3

4 2

5 1 ✔

Therefore,

Generators are

1,5

This method is much faster in exams.

Example 2
Find all generators of ℤ𝟖

Elements:

0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

Compute gcd with 8.

Element gcd with 8 Generator?

0 8

1 1 ✔

2 2

3 1 ✔

4 4

5 1 ✔

6 2

7 1 ✔

Therefore,

{1, 3, 5, 7}

are the generators.

Example 3

Find all generators of ℤ𝟏𝟎

Elements

0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

Find gcd.

Element gcd with 10 Generator?

1 1 ✔

2 2

3 1 ✔
Element gcd with 10 Generator?

4 2

5 5

6 2

7 1 ✔

8 2

9 1 ✔

Therefore,

{1, 3, 7, 9}

are generators.

Another Example (Exam Style)

Find the generators of ℤ𝟏𝟐

Elements:

0,1,2, … ,11

Only numbers coprime with 12 are generators.

Element gcd(12,a) Generator

1 1 ✔

5 1 ✔

7 1 ✔

11 1 ✔

Hence,

{1, 5, 7, 11}

General Rule

For
 ℤ𝑛

Generators are precisely those elements 𝑎for which

gcd (𝑎, 𝑛) = 1

The number of generators is given by Euler's Totient Function:

𝜙(𝑛)

Examples:

Group Number of Generators

ℤ5 𝜙(5) = 4

ℤ6 𝜙(6) = 2

ℤ8 𝜙(8) = 4

ℤ10 𝜙(10) = 4

University Style Answer

Question: Find the generators of ℤ8 .

Solution:

The elements of ℤ8 are

{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7}.

An element 𝑎is a generator if

gcd (𝑎, 8) = 1.

Now,

gcd (1,8) = 1, gcd (3,8) = 1, gcd (5,8) = 1, gcd (7,8) = 1.

Therefore,

{1, 3, 5, 7}

are the generators of ℤ8 .

 Common Mistakes

Mistake 1

Students think every non-zero element is a generator.

This is false.

Example:

In ℤ6 , the element 2 is non-zero but not a generator.

Mistake 2

Students confuse generator with identity.

The identity is always 0 (for addition modulo 𝑛).

A generator is an element that can generate all elements of the group.

Mistake 3

Students forget the shortcut.

Instead of repeatedly adding elements, simply check:

gcd (𝑎, 𝑛) = 1

Examination Tip (Golden Shortcut)

Whenever you see:

Find the generators of ℤ𝑛

Follow these three steps:

1. Write all elements of ℤ𝑛 .

2. Compute gcd (𝑎, 𝑛)for each element 𝑎.

3. Select only those elements with gcd (𝑎, 𝑛) = 1.

4. Finally if 1(one) generator found then decide that the group is cyclic group.
Question 5
Convert a Boolean Expression into DNF and CNF

Frequently Asked in MAKAUT

Step 1: What is DNF and CNF?

Suppose we have the Boolean expression

𝐹(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵

(XOR operation)

We want to write this function in two standard forms:

• DNF (Disjunctive Normal Form)

• CNF (Conjunctive Normal Form)

These are called canonical forms.

Step 2: What is DNF?

DNF (Disjunctive Normal Form) means:

An OR ( + ) of AND ( · ) terms

In other words,

• First make several AND terms (called minterms).

• Then join them using OR.

General form:

(AND term) + (AND term) + (AND term)

Example:

𝐴′ 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵′

Here,

• 𝐴′ 𝐵is an AND term.

• 𝐴𝐵′ is another AND term.

• They are joined by OR.

Hence, it is DNF.
Step 3: What is CNF?

CNF (Conjunctive Normal Form) means:

An AND ( · ) of OR ( + ) terms

In other words,

• First make several OR terms (called maxterms).

• Then join them using AND.

Example:

(𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴′ + 𝐵′ )

Here,

• (𝐴+𝐵)is an OR term.

• (𝐴′ +𝐵′ )is another OR term.

• They are joined by AND.

Hence, it is CNF.

Easy Way to Remember

DNF
↓

OR of AND

(AB)+(CD)+(EF)

----------------------------

CNF
↓

AND of OR

(A+B)(C+D)(E+F)

Step 4: How to Find DNF?

Rule
DNF is formed from the rows where the output is 1.

Remember:

Output = 1

Write DNF

Example 1

Find the DNF of

ABF

000

011

101

110

Step 1

Look only at rows where

𝐹=1

These are

ABF

011

101

Step 2

Write the corresponding minterm.

Row 1

𝐴 = 0, 𝐵 = 1

0 means complement.

Therefore,
 𝐴′ 𝐵

Row 2

𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 0

Therefore,

𝐴𝐵′

Step 3

Join using OR.

Hence,

𝐹 = 𝐴′ 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵′

This is the DNF.

Why Did We Write 𝑨′ ?

Students often ask this.

Rule:

Value Write

0 Complement

1 Original variable

Example

Row

01

becomes

𝐴′ 𝐵

because

A=0

means
A is false.

Step 5: How to Find CNF?

Rule

CNF is formed from rows where

𝐹=0

Remember

Output = 0

Write CNF

Using the same table

ABF

000

011

101

110

Rows with

𝐹=0

are

AB

00

11

Step 6

Write maxterms.

Important Rule

For CNF
Value Write

0 Original variable

1 Complement

Notice this is opposite of DNF.

Row

00

becomes

(𝐴+𝐵)

Row

11

becomes

(𝐴′ +𝐵′ )

Step 7

Join using AND.

Hence,

𝐹 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴′ + 𝐵′ )

This is CNF.

Summary

DNF

Rows with

𝐹=1

Write minterms

↓
Join by OR

CNF

Rows with

𝐹=0

Write maxterms

Join by AND

Example 2

Find DNF and CNF.

ABF

001

011

100

111

DNF

Rows where

𝐹=1

Row

00

𝐴′ 𝐵′

Row

01

↓
 𝐴′ 𝐵

Row

11

𝐴𝐵

Therefore,

𝐹 = 𝐴′ 𝐵′ + 𝐴′ 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵

CNF

Only one row has

𝐹=0

That row is

10

For CNF

1 becomes

A'

0 becomes

Hence

𝐹 = (𝐴′ + 𝐵)

Example 3 (Very Important)

Convert

𝐹 = 𝐴 + 𝐵′

into DNF and CNF.

Step 1
Construct the truth table.

A B B' F=A+B'

001 1

010 0

101 1

110 1

DNF

Rows where

𝐹=1

Rows:

00

𝐴′ 𝐵′

10

𝐴𝐵′

11

𝐴𝐵

Therefore,

𝐹 = 𝐴′ 𝐵′ + 𝐴𝐵′ + 𝐴𝐵

CNF

Rows where

𝐹=0
Only

01

For CNF

B'

Hence,

𝐹 = (𝐴 + 𝐵′ )

Notice the original expression is already in CNF because it is a single OR clause.

Common Mistakes

Mistake 1

Students use the wrong rows.

Remember:

• DNF → Output = 1

• CNF → Output = 0

Mistake 2

Students use the same conversion rule for DNF and CNF.

Remember:

Value DNF CNF

0 Complement Original

1 Original Complement

Mistake 3

Joining terms incorrectly.

 • DNF → Join by OR (+).

• CNF → Join by AND (·).

Memory Trick

DNF

1 → Minterms

0 → Complement

1 → Original

Join by OR

---------------------------------

CNF

0 → Maxterms

0 → Original

1 → Complement

Join by AND

University Style Answer

Steps to obtain DNF

1. Construct the truth table.

2. Select all rows where 𝐹 = 1.

3. Write the corresponding minterm for each row.

4. Join all minterms using OR (+).

Steps to obtain CNF

1. Construct the truth table.

2. Select all rows where 𝐹 = 0.

3. Write the corresponding maxterm for each row.

4. Join all maxterms using AND (·).

Exam Tip (Golden Shortcut)

Students often forget whether to complement variables in DNF or CNF. Memorize this table:

Value DNF (Minterm) CNF (Maxterm)

0 Complement (𝐴′ ) Original (𝐴)

1 Original (𝐴) Complement (𝐴′ )

If you remember only this table and the fact that DNF uses rows with output 1 while CNF uses rows
with output 0, you can solve almost every university question on DNF and CNF