Structure of an Atom
An atom is the smallest part of any substance that still shows all its properties. It is
made of three main particles: proton, neutron, and electron.
• Protons (p■): Found in the nucleus, have a positive charge, and a mass of
1 amu.
• Neutrons (n■): Found in the nucleus, have no charge, and a mass of 1
amu.
• Electrons (e■): Move around the nucleus in shells, have a negative charge,
and almost no mass.
Formulas in this section:
• Protons = Atomic number (Z)
• Neutrons = Mass number (A) – Atomic number (Z)
• Electrons = Protons (for neutral atoms)
Example 1: Oxygen (O)
Atomic number = 8, Mass number = 16
• Protons = 8
• Neutrons = 8
• Electrons = 8
Example 2: Chloride ion (Cl■)
Atomic number = 17, Mass number = 35
• Protons = 17
• Neutrons = 18
• Electrons = 18 (after gaining one)
Electron Arrangement (Shells)
Electrons fill shells around the nucleus: 1st shell = 2, 2nd = 8, 3rd = 8, 4th = 2.
Formula:
Maximum electrons in a shell = 2n² (where n = shell number)
Example Arrangements
• Hydrogen: 1
• Helium: 2
• Lithium: 2,1
• Oxygen: 2,6
• Calcium: 2,8,8,2
Isotopes
• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.
• Average Atomic Mass: Weighted average of all isotopes of an element.
• Relative Atomic Mass: Mass compared to carbon-12 (set as 12).
• Radioactive Isotopes: Isotopes that give off radiation.
• Radioactivity: Process where unstable isotopes emit radiation.
Formulas in this section:
• Average Atomic Mass = (mass■ × %■ + mass■ × %■ + ... ) ÷ 100
• Neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number
Example: Hydrogen Isotopes
• H-1: 1 proton, 0 neutron, 1 electron
• H-2: 1 proton, 1 neutron, 1 electron
• H-3: 1 proton, 2 neutrons, 1 electron
Numerical Example – Average Atomic Mass
Example 1: Chlorine → Cl-35 (75%) and Cl-37 (25%)
= (35×75 + 37×25) ÷ 100 = 35.5 amu
Example 2: Boron → B-10 (20%) and B-11 (80%)
= (10×20 + 11×80) ÷ 100 = 10.8 amu
Uses of Isotopes
• Carbon-14: Carbon dating
• Uranium-235: Nuclear power generation
• Iodine-131: Thyroid medical tests
• Technetium-99: Medical imaging
• Cobalt-60: Cancer treatment
Models of the Atom
Rutherford's Experiment showed that atoms have a small dense nucleus and are
mostly empty space.
Defects of Rutherford Model: Could not explain electron stability or atomic spectra.
Bohr’s Model: Electrons move in fixed orbits (shells) and can gain or lose energy
when jumping between shells.
Formulas related to Bohr’s concept:
• Energy difference (∆E) = E■ - E■
• When electrons jump to higher energy levels → energy absorbed
• When electrons fall to lower levels → energy released as light
Shells and Sub-shells
• Shells: Main energy levels (like floors).
• Sub-shells: Smaller divisions inside shells (s, p, d, f).
Formula:
Maximum electrons in a shell = 2n²
Electronic Configuration
Electrons fill sub-shells in order: 1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s ...
Examples:
• Hydrogen (1): 1s¹
• Oxygen (8): 1s² 2s² 2p■
• Sodium (11): 1s² 2s² 2p■ 3s¹
• Sodium ion (Na■): 1s² 2s² 2p■
• Chloride ion (Cl■): 1s² 2s² 2p■ 3s² 3p■
Formula:
Order of sub-shell filling: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s...
Formula Sheet
Atomic Structure
• Protons = Atomic number (Z)
• Neutrons = Mass number (A) – Atomic number (Z)
• Electrons = Protons (for neutral atom)
• Maximum electrons in a shell = 2n²
Isotopes
• Average Atomic Mass = (mass■ × %■ + mass■ × %■ + ... ) ÷ 100
• Neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number
Bohr’s Model
• Energy difference (∆E) = E■ - E■
• Light energy emitted = hν (Planck’s equation)
Electronic Configuration
• Order of sub-shell filling: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s...
• Shells: K (1), L (2), M (3), N (4)