Chapter -09 Transportation

Prepared by ER. Raju Prasad Yadav

9.1 Highway planning and survey:

• Movement of people is known as Passenger transportation

• Movement of goods is known as [goods] transportation
• DOR established in 2027 BS (1970 AD)
• In 1956 AD, Tribhuwan Highway( connecting raxual india) was constructed
• In 1963 AD, [Arniko] Highway (Connecting China)
• NRS published in 2027 BS
• NRS was to design strategic road ( highway + Feeder road), urban road , district road.

Administrative classification of road:

1. National Highway (NH) / Rajmarga /Trunk road:

o Designed by NH letter followed by 2 digits
o 80 numbers of National Highways
o Connect whole country from all directions

2. Feeder Road (FR):

o Designed by F letter followed by [number]
o Connect headquarters, tourism centers to national highway
o Example: Birtamod-Bhadrapur road
3. District Road (DR): Within a district
4. Urban Roads: i.e., Ring road
o Inner ring road length = 27 km
o Outer ring road length = 68 km

Functional / Technical Classification:

1. Class I (Expressway): ADT of 20,000 or [more for] 20 years

2. Class II (Arterial road): ADT of 5,000–20,000 PCU
3. Class III (Collector): ADT of 2,000–5,000 PCU
4. Class IV roads (Local roads): ADT of less than 2,000 PCU
Speed Table (km/hr):

Road Class Plain (0 to 10%) Rolling (10 to 25%) Mountainous (25 to 60%) Steep (>60%)

I 120 100 80 60

II 100 80 60 40

III 80 60 40 30

IV 60 40 30 20

Notes:

• The feeder for other modes of transport is roadway

• A road inside the city is called Street
• Mobility is not the negative impact of transportation
• Railway locomotive is not a fixed component
• The most reliable mode of transportation is road
• As per NRS, Arterial road is called Path
• As per NRS 2070, the life of perpetual road is about 20 years.

9.2 Geometric Design of Highway:

1. Percentile speed:

➢ Spot speed is measured by an instrument named as endoscope

1. 98% speed is taken for design SPEED

➢ Used to check geometric features

2. Upper speed limit for regulation = 85%

3. Lower speed limit = 15%
4. Dispersion Speed = upper – lower
5. Speed causing congestion = 15%
6. Median speed = 50th%
2. Design Vehicle (As per NRS-2070):

• Max width = 2.5m

• Height = 4.75m
• Length = 18m
• Single axle load = 10 tons
• Standard load = 8.2 tons (82 KN)
• Average speed of pedestrian = 1.2 m/s
1000V
3. Maximum Basic Capacity = S

𝑉2
• Spacing (S) =SD + L = 0.278Vt + 254f + L

Where L=Length of vehicle, V = Velocity in Kmph, S = Spacing in meter

4. Cross Sectional Elements:

I. Right of Way (ROW):

SN Types of Road ROW (Meter)
1 Highway 50
2 Feeder Roads 30
3 District Roads 20
4 City Roads
A 4 Lane 50
b 2 Lane 30

II. Width of Carriage Way: It is with of road constructed for movement.

• Single Lane: 3.75m

• Intermediate lane: 5.5m
• Multi-lane: 3.5m
• Min width of riser curb: 0.5m
• Min length of riser curb = 0.2

III. Shoulder:
Road Class I II III IV
Shoulder width (m) 3.75 2.5 2.0 1.5

• Min width of footpath required = 1.5m

• Min width of bicycle track = 1.2m each side

IV. Roadway width = carriageway + 2 x shoulder width

V. Side Slope: Cut and Fill
 Height(m) <1.5 1.5 – 3.0 3.0 – 4.5 4.5 – 12 > 12
Side slope(H:V) 1:4 1:3 1:2.5 1:2 Design specially

5. Types of Gradient:

1. Ruling gradient: Gives max safety at min cost

2. Limiting gradient: Steeper than ruling gradient used in hill road.
3. Exceptional gradient: Steeper than limiting gradient (less than minimum gradient and
more than maximum gradient)
4. Minimum gradient: Used where drainage is important.

Notes

• The min longitudinal gradient for drain = 0.5%

• The min longitudinal gradient for road = 1%

Note: Minimum value of super elevation should be equal to rate of camber.

5. Camber:

• Earthen road: 5%
• WBM/Surface treatment: 4%
• Bituminous road: 2.5%
• Cement concrete: 1.5-2.0%

𝑉2
6. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = 0.278vt + 254(f+n)µ
Where n = gradient and µ = brake efficiency

• For single lane one-way or multi-lane two-way: SSD = SD

• For single lane with two-way traffic: SSD = 2 SD

7. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD):

d1= 0.278vt

d2= 0.278Vb.T +2S

d3= 0.278V.T

14.4 𝑆
T=√ , a = acceleration or retardation
𝑎

• OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
• One-way traffic: OSD = d1 + d2
• If Vb is not given then Vb = V – X , where X = 16 to 30 kmph

• Min length of overtaking zone = 3 OSD

• Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5 OSD
• Intermediate sight distance (ISD) = 2 SSD
30+𝑅 75
• Grade compensation = 𝑅 = 𝑅 % for max value
• Grade compensation is not provided if gradient is flatter than 4%
15. Vertical Curve: Parabolic or circular

• Summit Curve(crest curve): Convexity upward (flattened)

• Valley Curve / Sag Curve: Convexity downward; height of headlight = 0.75m
• Hairpin Bend: Curve in hill roads which changes direction through an angle of 180°
o Design speed = 20 kmph
o Min radius of curvature = 14m or 15m
o Min radius of inner circle = 15m
o Min length of transition curve = 15m
o Max longitudinal gradient = 4% or 1 in 25
o Min longitudinal gradient = 1 in 200
o Max e = 1 in 10 or 10%
o Straight length between 2 successive hairpin bends = min 60m excluding length
o of transition curve and circular curve

MCQs / Key Points:

• Gradient is not related to cross-section of road.

• Settlement is not considered when designing highway
• Speed at a particular place at different times is T.M.S. (Time Mean Speed)
• If Time Mean Speed is 50 kmph, then Space Mean Speed is less than 50 kmph
• Improper alignment doesn't cause fatigue cracking
• Ideal shape of transition curve is Clothoid
• Catch drain is provided to intercept rain in hills region
• Max vertical clearance in hill road for overhanging cliff is 5m
• Design speed = overtaken speed + 16
• Distance travelled during perception and brake reaction time is called lag distance
• For measuring SSD, height of object is 15cm above road surface
9.3 Highway Materials

Aggregate tests

1) Shape Test:

• Flakiness Index
• Elongation Index
• Angularity Number

2) Los Angeles Abrasion Test:

• Commonly used for hardness of aggregate.

• Cast iron or steel balls.
• Rotation = 30-33 rpm.
• Sieved on 1.7 mm IS sieve.
• For Cement Concrete, abrasion value ≤ 16%.
• For WBM surface course, abrasion value ≤ 30%.
• For WBM base course, abrasion value ≤ 50%.

3) Crushing Test:

• Used to determine the strength & durability under compressive load.

• Material passing through 2.36 mm sieve.
• Gives a relative measure of the resistance of any aggregate.

4) Impact Test:

• Weight of metal hammer = 13.5 kg or 14 kg.

• Hammer height = 380 ± 5 mm.
• AIV < 10% = Exceptionally strong
• AIV (10-20%) = Strong
• AIV (20-30%) = Satisfactory for road surfacing
• AIV (> 30%) = Weak
• AIV should not be greater than 45%.

5) Soundness Test:

• Determine resistance to disintegration.

• (loss < 12% with sodium sulfate, < 18% with magnesium sulfate).
• Temperature = (105 to 110)℃

6) Bitumen:

• Bitumen is destructive distillation of coal, wood (organic).

• Binding material.
7) Tests on Bitumen:

• Penetration Test:
o Measurement of hardness or consistency (softness).
o A 80/100 grade bitumen indicates its penetration value lies between 80-100.
• Ductility Test:
o Ductility is the distance in cm to which a standard bitumen sample will be
elongated without breaking.
o Ductility test gives measure of adhesive property of bitumen and stability to
stretch.
o Water bath temperature 27℃.
o Rate of stretching of bitumen = 50 mm/min.
• Softening Point Test:
➢ Determined by Ring and Ball apparatus.
➢ Bitumen is heated at the rate of 5℃/ \min.
➢ Temperature at which standard ball passes through bitumen sample in a
mould and fall 2.5 cm when heated is called softening point.
• Viscosity Test:
➢ Viscosity Offers resistance to flow.
➢ 50 cc of bitumen sample is used.
• Spot Test:
➢ To indicate overheating or cracked bitumen.
➢ The max water content in bitumen should not exceed 0.2% by weight in 34 hours.
➢ Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate more than 1% loss in
weight.

8) Marshall Test (Mix Design Method):

• Determine Stability & Flow or strength and flexibility.

• Strength is measured by Marshall Stability value (at 60℃).
• Flexibility is measured in terms of flow value.

9) Notes:

• Evaluation of subgrade soil is done to resist ultimate load of pavement and to provide
support to pavement.
• The standard temperature of Marshall Stability = 60℃.
• Distance between two samples in penetration test should be 10 mm.
• If penetration grade is 65, then penetration value = 6.5.
• Min ductility value of bitumen to use in road construction = 50 cm.
• Bitumen extraction test is done at 3600 rpm at 110℃.
9.4Traffic Engineering and Safety

1. Traffic Volume: The no. of vehicles passing a particular section of road per unit time at a
specified time.

o Units: veh/day, veh/hr.

Presentation & Analysis of Traffic Volume:

1. ADT (Average Daily Traffic): An avg 24-hr traffic volume at a given location for
period less than a year (e.g., a month, week, or a number of days).
o ADT = Traffic Volume ×Daily Factor ×Seasonal Factor.
2. AADT (Average Annual Daily Traffic): It is the average of 24-hour traffic volume over
365 days.
3. Trend Chart: Traffic volume vs year.
4. Variation Chart: It is prepared for the presentation of hourly, daily and weekly traffic
volume.
5. 30th Highest Hourly Volume: The volume that will be exceeded only 29 times in a
year.
o All other hourly volumes of the year will be less than this value.

2. Future Traffic Estimate:

• A = P(1+r)^n

3. Parking Study:

• A car is on an average moving for 4% (400 hours/year) of time and for the rest of 96%
(8360hours/year) of time is parked.

Types of Parking:

A) On-Street Parking (Kerb Parking):

• Parallel parking.
• Angle parking (30°, 45°, 60°, 90°).
• Max vehicles can be parked at 90°.
• Drivers prefer to park at 75°.
• Most economical parking is at 45°.
• Parallel parking is preferred when the width of the road is limited.

B) Off-Street Parking:

• Surface parking.
• Roof parking.
• Underground parking.
Note : Parking space = length of kerb / design with of vehicle(2.5m)

4. Road Intersection:

• Intersection at Grade:
o An intersection where all roadways join at same level.
o E.g., Rotary intersection.
• Grade Separated Intersection:
o Roads are separated at different levels.
o At this, normally one-way traffic is designed by passing one road over or below
the others.
• Channelized Intersection:
o An intersection where there is provision of islands for directing traffic.
• Un channelized Intersection:
o No provision of island.
o Large conflict area.
• Plain Intersection:
o When no additional pavement width for turning movement is provided.
• Flared Intersection:
o When pavement is widened at intersection area by a traffic lane or more.

5. Traffic Control Devices:

A) Traffic Signs:

1. Regulatory / Mandatory Signs:

o Circular shape.
o Examples: Stop sign (Octagonal), Give Way sign (Inverted Triangle).
o Always red border, black symbol and white background.
o Signs are placed 45 cm beyond the road edge.
o Prohibitory signs: No parking, Speed limit, Vehicle control signs, No entry sign.
2. Warning Signs / Cautionary Signs:
o Used to warn drivers of dangerous or potential hazardous conditions ahead.
o Triangular in shape with red border, black symbol and white background.
o E.g., Narrow bridge, T-Junction, Men at work.
o School ahead sign is warning or cautionary sign. (VVI)
3. Informatory Signs:
o Used to guide road users.
o Rectangular shape.
o E.g., Parking sign, Name of street, Destination signs.

B) Traffic Signals:

• Red = Stop.
• Green = Go.
• Yellow / Amber = Clearance time (3 to 5 seconds).
C) Traffic Island:

➢ Raised area provided at level road to avoid conflict points.

➢ It separates pedestrian and vehicle.
➢ It is provided at bus stop.

Other Notes:

• Daily average traffic calculated based on 30 days survey in 365 days is ADT.
• Longitudinal ridging due to the channelization of traffic is called grooving.
• For the movement of vehicles at an intersection of two roads, without any interference,
the Clover Leaf is preferred.
• The min. weaving angle in rotary intersection is 15°.
• Clover leaf intersection has no conflict points.
• The value of distribution factor for 4-lane road in Nepal is 0.4 for both lanes.
• The effect of traffic signal is to reduce right turn accidents but may increase rear end
collisions.
• The min. value of 15-minute peak hour factor on a section of road is 0.25.

9.5 Road Pavement

• Pavement Layers & Thickness:

o S.C. (Surface Course): 25-50 mm
o Prime Binder: 50-100 mm
o B.C. (Base Course): 100-300 mm
o S.B. (Sub-Base): 100-300 mm
o Subgrade: 150-300 mm
• Standard Axle Load: The standard axle load for Nepal is 8.2 tones.
• CBR (California Bearing Ratio):
o It is done for calculating the stability of soil subgrade and other flexible pavement
materials.
o The CBR values of 2.5mm penetration are usually higher than that of 5mm.
• Resilient Modulus Formulas:
o If CBR ≤ 5%, then:

Resilient modulus = 10.3 × 𝐶𝐵𝑅 (𝑚𝑝𝑎) = 1500 × 𝐶𝐵𝑅 (𝑃𝑠𝑖)

o If CBR > 5%, then:

Resilient Modulus = 176 × 𝐶𝐵𝑅 0.64

• Vehicle Damage Factor: It is the multiplier for converting the number of commercial
vehicles to the number of standard axle load repetitions.
 • Load Damage Calculation:
o 160KN load damages pavement 16 times more than 80KN.
160
o Calculation: ( )4= 2^4 = 16.
80
• CBR Design Rules:
o The %CBR used for design of roads with more than 20 million ESAL as
recommended by DoR is 0.9.
o If the CBR value at 5mm is greater than that of 2.5mm, then the test should be
repeated.
o The rate of penetration of plunger is 1.25 mm/min.
o The design factor not considered in CBR is weather.
• Rebound Deflection:
o Rebound deflection standard temperature = 35°C.
• Pavement Types:
o Rigid pavement = Cement pavements is best for night visibility.
o Flexible pavement = Bituminous pavements.

9.6 Road Construction and Maintenance

• Mass Haul Diagram (MHD):

o The slope of the mass haul diagram gives the rate of change of earthwork volume
over distance.
o The max ordinate of mass haul diagram occurs at the end of cutting.
o In mass haul diagram, negative sign indicates the Filling.
o In MHD, if end is negative then it means Burrow (Borrow).
o The max ordinate(+ve) indicates a change from cut to fill.
o The min ordinate(-ve) indicates a change from fill to cut.

Asked MCQ

• Macadam Roads:
o In water bound macadam (WBM) roads, binding material is stone dust.
• Bituminous Layers:
o The premix is used in the base course in bituminous macadam.
o The bitumen layer spread over old pavement to bind newer pavement together is
called Tack coat.
• Rigid Pavement Details:
o The tie bars in rigid pavements provide support for longitudinal joints.
o The thin hairline crack is also known as crazing.
• Compaction & Defects:
o For coarse grained soil, vibratory rollers are used.
o Alligator cracking is fatigue failure due to temperature stress.
o The pot holes in case of bituminous road require recurrent maintenance.
o The equivalent wheel load of 100Kn is 2.25 times repetition of design load.

• Vehicle Factors: The vehicle that has the highest equivalent factor is the Bull cart (6
PCU).
• Camber: In parabolic camber angle of inclination is max at edge.
• Superelevation:
o The minimum superelevation (e) on a road curve is the camber slope.
• Flooring: The first step in flooring is base coat.