Chapter – 08 Hydropower
Prepared by ER. Raju Prasad Yadav.
8.1 Planning Hydropower Project
• Definition: Hydropower is Renewable, Conventional and commercial source of energy.
Potentials
• Gross / Theoretical Potential: 83,000 MW in Nepal.
• Technically Feasible Potential: 44,000 MW for Nepal.
• Economical Potential: 42,000 MW for Nepal.
Hydropower Development History
• First Commercial Hydropower in Nepal: Pharping – Dakshinkali (Chandra Jyoti) –
500watt
• First Private Sector Project: Khimti (60 MW), Run-of-River (ROR).
• Largest in the World: Three Gorges Dam, China (22,500 MW).
8.2 Power And Energy Potential Study
Head
• Gross Head: The difference of water levels in the headrace and tailrace.
• Net Head (Effective Head): Gross Head - Sum of all head losses.
• Note: For maximum efficiency, the rated head should be equal to the design head.
Power Availability
• Firm (Primary) Power: Net power continuously available (100% of the time).
• Secondary Power: Excess power over firm power.
Classification of Hydropower
In Nepal, for projects up to 25 MW, the installed capacity is fixed based on Q40 (flow available
40% of the time).
Types by Capacity:
Type Capacity Range
Micro < 100 kW
Mini 100 kW – 1 MW
Small 1 MW – 25 MW
Medium 25 MW – 100 MW
Large Above 100 MW
Types by Storage:
1. Run-of-River (ROR): No appreciable pondage.
2. Storage Plant:
o Kulekhani I (60 MW) is the only storage plant in Nepal.
Reservoir and their regulation:
• Reservoir Capacity: Volume of water that can be stored in a particular reservoir
• Life of reservoir: Period during which sediment collected does not affect primary use.
• Trap efficiency = Sediment deposited in reservoir / Total sediment flowing in river
• Capacity inflow ratio = Reservoir capacity / Total inflow of water
• Dead Storage: Volume below the minimum pool level (sediment storage).
• Bank Storage: Amount of water seeps into the permeable reservoir bank.
• Live (Useful) Storage: Volume between minimum pool level and normal pool level.
Used for power generation.
• Surcharge Storage: Volume between normal pool level and maximum flood level.
• Valley Storage: Volume stored in the channel before construction.
• Effective Storage of flood mitigation = Live storage + Surcharge storage – Valley
storage.
8.3 Headworks of Storage Plants
• Diaphragm: The thickness of the diaphragm is less than 10m or the height of the
embankment above that level.
• Stability (No Tension Condition): The resultant force should lie within the middle
third of the base width.
That is e<B/6
• Seepage: The seepage line (phreatic line) should remain within the downstream face of
the dam so that no sloughing of the face occurs.
Spillway
• A structure constructed at a dam/weir site for effectively disposing of surplus water from
upstream to downstream.
• It acts as a safety valve.
• Design Discharge (Q): C L H^(3/2)
o Where C ranges from 2.1 to 2.5 (Standard C = 2.2).
Energy Dissipators
Type of Stilling
Medium of Energy Dissipation Depth Condition
Basin
Hydraulic Jump Tail water = Post
Formation of hydraulic jump
Type jump depth
Roller Bucket Tail water > Post
Roller action
Type jump depth
Ski Jump / Combined action of Air resistance, viscous Tail water < Post
Trajectory effect and impact turbulence jump depth
8.4 Headworks of Run-of-River (ROR) Plants
• Intake: Structure to withdraw water.
o ROR Types: Side/Lateral intake, Frontal intake, Drop intake.
o Reservoir Types: Dam intake, Tower intake, Shaft/Glory hole intake.
Settling Basin
• A structure designed to settle down suspended sediment.
• Components:
1. Inlet Zone: Transition from approach canal. Horizontal expansion 1:5 (7° to 10°);
Vertical expansion 1:2.
2. Settling Zone: Slope 1:20 to 1:50. Length to Width ratio = 4 to 10.
3. Outlet Zone: Transition to headrace. Horizontal contraction 1:2; Vertical
contraction 1:1.
8.5 Water Conveyance System
1. Hydraulic Tunnels: Constructed for conveyance of flow.
• Circular: Best for structural strength (external/internal pressure).
➢ The minimum size of circular tunnel is 2m.
• D-Shaped: More working space/floor space.
➢ Suitable for tunnel with no internal pressure.
• Horse-Shoe: Advantage of flatter invert and resist internal pressure.
2. Tunnel Lining: Improves hydraulic capacity, reduces losses, and increases structural strength.
➢ Thickness of lining: t = 0.082 D (mm).
3. Forebay: Constructed at the entrance of the penstock pipe.
➢ Fulfils immediate water requirement during turbine start-up.
➢ Accommodates rejected water during turbine closure and spill excess water.
➢ Minimum settling depth ~0.3m.
➢ Free Board = 0.3m to 1m
4, Surge Tank: Neutralizes pressure.
➢ Reduces or absorbs water hammer (elastic shock wave) to protect penstock pipes.
5. Penstock: Large diameter pipe transferring water from source/surge tank to turbine.
o Economic Diameter: Minimizes annual cost (Capital cost of penstock + Cost of
power lost due to friction).
8.6 Electromechanical Components
[Link] Conversion Steps
1. Hydraulic to Mechanical: Turbine.
2. Mechanical to Hydraulic: Pump.
3. Mechanical to Electric: Generator.
[Link] Tube
• A straight divergent tube gradually increasing in area connecting the turbine runner outlet
to the tailrace.
• Functions:
o Recovers velocity head (Kinetic Energy) to Potential Energy / Pressure Energy.
o Discharges water to the tailrace.
• Constraint: Pressure at the inlet and outlet should not be less than one-third of
atmospheric pressure to avoid cavitation.
3. Pumps
➢ Device causing increase in energy of flow due to external mechanical energy applied to
it.
•
• Centrifugal Pump: Principle of forced vortex flow.
• Reciprocating Pump: Positive displacement pump suitable for relatively small flow and
high heads.
3. Powerhouse Dimensions
• Length: C/C distance between units (L = 5D + 2.5m).
• Width: Generator diameter + 2 times width of casing + 2.5m extra space.
• Height: Dependent on crane clearance and machine height.( 2 to 2.5m)
4. Turbines
Classification:
a. Based on Action/ Inlet Energy:
I. Impulse (Velocity) Turbine: Only Kinetic energy is used.
➢ Example: Pelton, Turgo, Crossflow.
II. Reaction (Pressure) Turbine: Both Kinetic and Pressure energy used.
➢ Example: Francis, Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb.
b. Based on Head:
o Low Head (< 60m): Kaplan.
o Medium Head (60m to 250m): Francis.
o High Head (> 250m): Pelton.
c. Based on Direction of Flow:
o Tangential: Pelton.
o Radial: Old Francis (Inward).
o Axial: Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb.
o Mixed: Modern Francis.
o Diagonal: Deriaze Turbine.
Some MCQ Notes
Hydropower Basics
• Hydel plant is the most economical source of energy.
• Continuous power supply is not an advantage of a hydroelectric power plant.
• Electricity regulation is approved by the Government of Nepal.
• The flow duration curve at a given head of a hydroelectric plant is used to determine total
power available at the site.
• When operating cost is high but flexibility is great, the plant is a peak plant.
• Annual depreciation of a dam in a hydropower plant is about 0.5–1.5%.
• Pondage in a hydropower station is temporary storage to meet peak demand.
• Pharping hydropower plant – capacity 500 kW and established in 1911AD.
Dam Types & Construction
• Gravity dam is most suitable when the foundation is strong.
• Construction ring (Joint) is commonly used in the construction of arch dams.
• Recommended top width of low earthen dam: 0.2H + 3.
• The core of an earthen embankment is important for controlling seepage.
• Morning glory is the special flared inlet of the shaft spillway of a large dam project.
• Temporary structures built to enclose a worksite are called cofferdams.
• Scourging is the process of progressive removal of soil from the D/S face.
• Homogeneous embankment type earth dam is suitable only on impervious foundation.
• Dead storage of a reservoir is the level between bed level and maximum pool level.
• The central core of a zoned embankment type earth dam checks seepage.
Stress Condition
• When reservoir is empty, the maximum vertical stress at the heel = 2w/B and at Toe = 0.
Hydropower Plant Components
• Governor is used to control mean speed or flow of working fluid.
• Trash rack is used to prevent entry of debris.
• Submerged intake is located at the bottom of the river.
• Fore poling method is used for soft ground.
• Shear friction factor against sliding = 3 to 5.
• Head & benching method is used in hard rock.
• In high head hydropower plants, velocity of water in penstock ≈ 7 m/s.
• Velocity of jet for Pelton turbine = Cv√(2gH).
• Powerhouse protects turbine and runner from damage.
• Kaplan turbine = low head axial flow turbine.
• Draft tubes are not used in Pelton turbines.
• Francis turbine has 16–24 runner blades.
• Storage type hydropower plant is suitable to meet both base load and peak load.