EMDSEV MODULE 2, BEE613D, PDIT, Dr.

Prakasha S 2024-25
HOSAPETE

ELECTRIC MOTOR AND DRIVE SYSTEM

FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES

BEE613D

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MODULE-2
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PREPARED BY
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[Link] S,
HOD, E&E DEPARTMENT
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PROUDHADEVARAYA INSTITUTE OFTECHNOLOGY,

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[Link] ROAD, HOSAPETE

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MODULE-2

EV Configurations:

The electric vehicles (EV) was mainly converted from the exiting internal combustion engine vehicle
(ICEV) by replacing the internal combustion engine and fuel tank with an electric motor drive and
battery pack while retaining all the other components, as shown in Figure 2.1 Drawbacks such as its
heavy weight, lower flexibility, and performance degradation have caused the use of this type of EV to
fade out. In its place, the modern EV is purposely built, based on original body and frame designs. This
satisfies the structure requirements unique to EVs and makes use of the greater flexibility of electric

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propulsion.

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Figure 2.1 Primary electric vehicle power train.

An electric vehicle, unlike its ICE counterparts, is quite flexible [4]. This is because of the absence of
intricate mechanical arrangements that are required to run a conventional vehicle. In an EV, there is
only one moving part, the motor. It can be controlled by different control arrangements and
techniques. The motor needs a power supply to run which can be from an array of sources. These two
components can be placed at different locations on the vehicle and as long as they are connected
through electrical wires, the vehicle will work. Then again, an EV can run solely on electricity, but an
ICE and electric motor can also work in conjunction to turn the wheels. Because of such flexibility,
different configurations emerged which are adopted according to the type of vehicle. An EV can be
considered as a system incorporating three different subsystems [4]: energy source, propulsion and

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auxiliary. The energy source subsystem includes the source, its refuelling system and energy
management system.

The propulsion subsystem has the electric motor, power converter, controller, transmission and the
driving wheels as its components. The auxiliary subsystem is comprised of auxiliary power supply,
temperature control system and the power steering unit. These subsystems are shown in Figure 2.2

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Figure 2.2 Conceptual illustration of general EV configuration

The arrows indicate the flow of the entities in question. A backward flow of power can be created by
regenerative actions like regenerative braking. The energy source has to be receptive to store the
energy sent back by regenerative actions. Most of the EV batteries along with capacitors/flywheels
(CFs) are compatible with such energy regeneration techniques [4].

Possible EV configurations:
EVs can have different configurations as shown in [4]. Figure 2.3a shows a front-engine front- wheel
drive vehicle with just the ICE replaced by an electric motor. It has a gearbox and clutch that allows
high torque at low speeds and low torque at high speeds. There is a differential as well that allows the

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wheels to rotate at different speeds. Figure 2.3b shows a configuration with the clutch omitted. It has a
fixed gear in place of the gearbox which removes the chance of getting the desired torque-speed
characteristics. The configuration of Figure 2.3c has the motor, gear and differential as a single unit
that drives both the wheels. The Nissan Leaf, as well as the Chevrolet Spark, uses an electric motor
mounted at the front to drive the front axle. In Figure 2.3d,e, configurations to obtain differential action
by using two motors for the two wheels are shown. Mechanical interaction can be further reduced by
placing the motors inside the wheels to produce an ‘in-wheel drive’. A planetary gear system is
employed here because advantages like high-speed reduction ratio and inline arrangement of input and
output shafts. Mechanical gear system is totally removed in the last configuration (Figure 2.3f) by
mounting a low-speed motor with an outer rotor configuration on the wheel rim. Controlling the motor
speed thus controls the wheel speed and the vehicle speed.

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EVs can be built with rear-wheel-drive configuration as well. The single motor version of the Tesla
Model S uses this configuration (Figure 2.4). The Nissan Blade Glider is a rear-wheel-drive EV with
in-wheel motor arrangement. The use of in-wheel motors enables it to apply different amount of
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torques at each of the two rear wheels to allow better cornering.
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Fig (2.3) Different configurations of EVs

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Figure 2.3. Different front wheel drive EV configurations. (a) Front-wheel drive vehicle with the ICE
replaced by an electric motor; (b) Vehicle configuration with the clutch omitted; (c) Configuration
with motor, gear and differential combined as a single unit to drive the front wheels; (d) Configuration
with individual motors with fixed fearing for the front wheels to obtain differential action; (e)
Modified configuration of Figure 2.3(d) with the fixed gearing arrangement placed within the wheels;
(f) Configuration with the mechanical gear system removed by mounting a low-speed motor on the
wheel rim. Adapted from [4].

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5. Performance of Electric Vehicles:

A vehicle’s driving performance is usually evaluated by its acceleration time, maximum speed, and
gradeability. In EV drive train design, proper motor power rating and transmission parameters are the
primary considerations to meet the performance specification. The design of all these parameters
depends mostly on the speed-power (torque) characteristics of the traction motor.

Variable-speed electric motor drives usually have the characteristics shown in Figure 5.4. At the low-
speed region (less than the base speed as marked in Figure 5.4), the motor has a constant torque. In the
high-speed region (higher than the base speed), the motor has a constant power. This characteristic is
usually represented by a speed ratio x, defined as the ratio of its maximum speed to its base speed. In

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low-speed operation, voltage supply to the motor increases with the increase of the speed through the
electronic converter while the flux is kept [Link] the point of base speed, the voltage of the motor
reaches the source voltage. After the base speed, the motor voltage is kept constant and the flux is
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weakened, dropping hyperbolically with increasing speed. Hence, its torque also drops hyperbolically
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with increasing speed.
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The figure illustrates the typical speed-torque and speed-power characteristics of a variable-speed
electric motor.

1. Low-Speed Region (0 to Base Speed)

 The motor operates in a constant torque mode.

 Torque remains steady while power increases linearly with speed.
 The voltage supplied to the motor rises proportionally with speed while maintaining constant
flux.

2. Base Speed

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 At this point, the motor reaches its rated voltage.
 It marks the transition from constant torque to constant power operation.
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3. High-Speed Region (Above Base Speed)
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 The motor operates in a constant power mode.

 Since power remains constant, torque decreases hyperbolically as speed increases.
 This behaviour results from flux weakening, where the field current is reduced to allow higher
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speeds.
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4. Key Observations

 The speed ratio (maximum speed/base speed) determines the range of high-speed operation.
 Power is maximized at base speed and maintained at that level for higher speeds.
 Torque declines at high speeds due to flux weakening.

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FIGURE 5.5 Speed-torque profile of a 60 kW electric motor with x= 2, 4, and 6.

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Figure 5.5 shows the torque-speed profiles of a 60 kW motor with different speed ratios x (x = 2, 4 and
6). It is clear that with a long constant power region, the maximum torque of the motor can be
significantly increased, and hence, vehicle acceleration and gradeability performance can be improved
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and the transmission can be simplified. However, each type of motor inherently has its limited
maximum speed ratio. For example, a permanent magnet motor has a small x (,2) because of the
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difficulty of field weakening due to the presence of the permanent magnet. Switched reluctance motors
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may achieve x.6 and induction motors about x = 4.

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Figure 5.5 illustrates the speed-torque profile of a 60 kW electric motor with different speed ratios (x = 2, 4,
and 6).

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[Link] Torque Region (Low-Speed Region)

 Up to the base speed, the motor operates in a constant torque mode.

 Torque remains steady while speed increases linearly.
 This is the region where the motor receives increasing voltage with constant flux.

2. Flux-Weakening Region (High-Speed Region)

 Beyond the base speed, the motor enters the constant power region.
 The torque decreases hyperbolically as the speed increases due to flux weakening.
 The speed ratio, x = (maximum speed) / (base speed), indicates how far the motor can extend
its speed beyond the base speed.

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 Three different cases are shown for x = 2, 4, and 6, representing different maximum speeds.

3. Effect of Speed Ratio (x)

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A higher speed ratio (x) allows the motor to operate at a higher maximum speed but results in a
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greater torque reduction in the flux-weakening region.
 For x = 2, the motor maintains higher torque in the high-speed region compared to x = 4 or x =
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6.
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 The trade-off in motor design is between high torque at low speeds and extended speed range
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with reduced torque.

 Selecting the appropriate speed ratio (x) depends on the specific vehicle performance
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requirements, such as acceleration, gradeability, and top speed.

5.2.2 Tractive Effort and Transmission Requirement:

The tractive effort developed by a traction motor on driven wheels and the vehicle speed are expressed
as:

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and

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where Tm and Nm are the motor torque output in Nm and speed in rpm, respectively, ig is gear ratio of
transmission, i0 is the gear ratio of final drive, ηt is the efficiency of the whole driveline from the motor
to the driven wheels, and rd is the radius of the driven wheels. The use of a multigear or single-gear
transmission depends mostly on the motor speed torque characteristic. That is, at a given rated motor
power, if the motor has a long constant power region, a single-gear transmission would be sufficient for
a high tractive effort at low speeds. Otherwise, a multigear (more than two gears) transmission has to be
used. Figure 5.6 shows the tractive effort of an EV, along with the vehicle speed with a traction motor of
x = 2 and a three-gear transmission. The first gear covers the speed region of a–b–c, the second gear
covers d–e–f and the third gear cover g–f–h. Figure 5.7 shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of
x = 4 and a two-gear transmission. The first gear covers the speed region of a–b–c and the second gear
d–e–f. Figure 5.8 shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x = 6 and a single-gear transmission.
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These three designs have the same tractive effort versus vehicle speed profiles. Therefore the vehicles
will have the same acceleration and gradeability performance.

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5.3 Tractive Effort in Normal Driving (Different driving cycles):

The vehicle performance described in the previous section dictates the vehicle capabilities with respect
to speed, gradeability, and acceleration, thus dictating the power capacity of the power train. However,
in normal driving conditions these maximum capabilities are rarely used. During most of the operation
time, the power train operates with partial load. Actual tractive effort (power) and vehicle speed vary
widely with operating conditions, such as acceleration, deceleration, uphill, downhill motion and so on.
These variations are associated with the traffic environment as well as the type of vehicles. City and
highway traffic conditions vary greatly, as do the different missions of the vehicles, such as passenger
cars and vehicles with regular operation routes and schedules.

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FIGURE 5.9 Power rating versus speed factor

It is difficult to describe the tractive effort and vehicle speed variations in all actual traffic environments
accurately and quantitatively. However, some representative driving cycles (driving schedules) have
been developed to emulate typical traffic environments. These driving cycles are represented by the
vehicle speeds versus the operating time while driving on a flat road. Some typical drive cycles are
illustrated in Figure 5.12, which include: (a) FTP75 urban cycle, (b) FTP75 highway cycle, (c) US06
cycle, which is a high-speed and high-acceleration drive cycle, (d) J227a schedule B, (e) J227a schedule
C, and (f) J227a schedule D. The J227a series are recommended by the Society of Automotive
Engineers in
the United States and is applied in the evaluation of EVs and batteries.

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In a specific drive cycle, the tractive effort of a vehicle can be expressed as:

---------5.14

In a short time period, the speed is assumed to be linear with time, and acceleration is constant as shown
in Figure 5.11, The acceleration, dV/dt in a driving cycle, can be obtained by:

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FIGURE 5.11 Acceleration being consumed constant with a short time period
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By using Equation (5.14), the tractive efforts in any instant in a driving cycle can be calculated, as
shown in Figure 5.12. The operating points of the tractive effort versus the vehicle speed scatter over the
plane, and they clearly show the operating area in which the power train operates most of the time.
Furthermore, the time distribution of the vehicle speed and tractive effort can be generated as shown in
Figure 5.13. This time distribution information is very helpful for power train design, in which the most
efficient region of the power train is designed to overlap the greatest operation time area.

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FIGURE 5.12
Speed profile and tractive effort in different representative drive cycles, operating points are marked by “+,” (a) FTP75 urban, (b) FTP75 highway.
Continued….

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FIGURE 5.12
Speed profile and tractive effort in different representative drive cycles, operating points are marked by “+,” (c) US06, (d) J227a schedule B.
Continued….

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This figure contains two sets of graphs labeled (c) US06 and (d) J227a Schedule B, which compare vehicle speed profiles and tractive effort under
different driving conditions.

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FIGURE 5.12
Speed profile and tractive effort in different representative drive cycles, operating points are marked by “+,”, (e) J227a Schedule C, and (f) J227a
schedule D.

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This figure contains two sets of graphs labeled (e) J227a Schedule C and (f) J227a Schedule D, which
represent different vehicle speed cycles and their corresponding tractive effort characteristics.

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FIGURE 5.13 Time distribution on vehicle speed and tractive effort in FTP75 urban cycle.

5.4 Energy Consumption:

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In transportation, the unit of energy is usually kilowatt-hour (kWh) rather than Joule or kilojoule (J or
kJ). The energy consumption per unit distance in kWh/km is generally used to evaluate the vehicle
energy consumption. However, for ICE vehicles the commonly used unit is a physical unit of fuel
volume per unit distance, such as liters per 100 km (l/100 km). In the United States, the distance per unit
volume of fuel is usually used; this is expressed as miles per gallon (mpg). On the other hand, for battery
powered EVs, the original energy consumption unit in kWh, measured at the battery terminals, is more
suitable. The battery energy capacity is usually measured in kWh and the driving range per battery
charge can be easily calculated. Similar to ICE vehicles, l/100 km (for liquid fuels) or kg/100 km (for
gas fuels, such as hydrogen) or mpg or miles per kilogram is a more suitable unit of measurement for
vehicles that use gaseous fuels.

Energy consumption is an integration of the power output at the battery terminals. For propelling, the
battery power output is equal to the resistance power and power losses in the transmission and the motor

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drive, including power losses in the electronics. The power losses in transmission and motor drive are
represented by their efficiencies ηt and ηm, respectively. Thus, the battery power output can be
expressed as:

Here, the nontraction load (auxiliary load) is not included. In some cases, the auxiliary loads may be too
significant to be ignored and should be added to the traction load. When regenerative braking is
effective on an EV, a part of the braking energy—wasted in conventional vehicles—can be recovered by

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operating the motor drive as a generator and restoring it into the batteries. The regenerative braking
power at the battery terminals can also be expressed as:
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FIGURE 5.14
Typical electric motor efficiency characteristics.

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called the regenerative braking factor. The regenerative braking factor α is a function of the applied
braking strength and the design and control of the braking system, which will be discussed in detail in
the later chapters. The net energy consumption from the batteries is

It should be noted that the braking power in Equation 5.17 has a negative sign. When the net battery
energy consumption reaches the total energy in the batteries, measured at their terminal, the batteries are
empty and need to be charged. The traveling distance between two charges (usually called effective

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travel range) is determined by the total energy carried by the batteries, the resistance power and the
effectiveness of the regenerative braking (α). Efficiency of a traction motor varies with its operating
points on the speed-torque (speedpower) plane as shown in Figure 5.14, where the most efficient
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operating area exists. In power train design, this area should overlap or at least be as close as possible to
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the area of the greatest operation as mentioned in the previous section.
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