TER207 Thermodynamics II

Spring 2020-2021
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Elif Begüm Elçioğlu
TA: Res. Asst. Fatih Turan

Schedule: Wednesday 9-12

Check [Link] regularly to be notified when

a course material or announcement is posted.

E-mail: ebelcioglu@[Link]
fatihturan@[Link]

Office hours: Wednesday 12-13.

For appointments, please send an e-mail to Res. Asst. Fatih Turan in advance.

Most of the course content are taken from Moran, Shapiro, Boettner, Bailey, 2014, John Wiley & Sons., Inc. 1
 Let’s remember some important concepts:
throttling inexact
polytropic

- Exergy is destroyed by ……………….. .

- Path functions have …………………….. differentials while point functions have ……………………..
differentials.
- A process defined by the relation PVn=C is a …………………………… process.
- the constant-volume and constant-pressure specific heats are identical for
………………………………….. substances.
- A process for which the specific enthalpy is constant is called a …………………………………..
process.
irreversibilities

exact
incompressible
2
Let’s first remember the formulations & analyses we discussed in the previous weeks.

✓ Exergy
✓ Exergy (rate) balance for a closed system
✓ Exergy (rate) balance for an open system
✓ Flow exergy
✓ Exergetic (2nd law) efficiency
✓ Rankine cycle (ideal & w/ irreversibilities)
✓ Isentropic turbine & pump efficiencies
✓ Rankine cycle w/ superheat & reheat
✓ Regenerative Rankine cycle w/ open fwh

3
 Exergy formulations that we covered thus far:
The exergy of a system, E, at
1 a specified state is:

2 The specific exergy, e, is :

.:. Recall exergy
3 transfers accompanying
HT & W.

4 steady-state form of the closed

system exergy rate balance

Open system
5 exergy rate balance
4
 Rankine cycle
Exergetic efficiency
formulations that we Turbine
covered thus far:
Condenser
Turbines

Pump
Compressors
and pumps
Boiler

Hex
Without
mixing
Rankine cycle
thermal
efficiency
Back work
ratio 5
 Improving Performance:
Isentropic efficiency Superheat and Reheat
formulations that we
covered thus far: T-s diagram of an ideal Rankine cycle
with superheated vapor at the turbine
Turbine inlet is cycle 1’–2’–3–4–1’.

In the ideal reheat cycle, steam does

not expand to the condenser pressure
in a single stage.
Pump Instead, steam expands through a 1st
stage turbine (1–2) to some pressure
b/w the steam generator and
condenser pressures.
Steam is then reheated in the steam
generator (2–3).
After reheating, the steam expands in a
2nd stage turbine to the condenser
pressure (3–4).
6
Improving Performance: Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle
• regenerative feedwater heating, or regeneration
• For this cycle, the working fluid passes isentropically through
Open Feedwater Heaters the turbine stages and pumps, and flow through the steam
generator, condenser, and feedwater heater takes place with
no pressure drop in any of these components.
• Still, there is a source of irreversibility owing to mixing within
the feedwater heater.

7
 Cycle analysis: open feedwater heater case (cont’d)
Turbine: The total work is the sum of the work developed by each
turbine stage.
Neglecting KE and PE effects and assuming no HT with the
surroundings, we can express the total turbine work on the basis of
a unit of mass passing through the first-stage turbine as:

Pump: The total pump work is the sum of the work required to
operate each pump individually.
On the basis of a unit of mass passing through the first-stage turbine,
the total pump work is:

Steam generator: The energy added by HT to the working fluid

passing through the steam generator, per unit of mass
expanding through the first-stage turbine and the energy
rejected by heat transfer to the cooling water is:

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TER207 Thermodynamics II
Spring 2020-2021

Lecture-4: Rankine cycle (cont’d) &

Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles

9
 Improving Performance: Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle (cont’d)
Closed Feedwater Heater
Closed fwh’s are shell-and-tube-type recuperators in which the feedwater temperature increases as the extracted steam
condenses on the outside of the tubes carrying the feedwater. Since the two streams do not mix, they can be at different p.

A regenerative vapor power cycle having one closed The working fluid passes isentropically through turbine stages and
fwh w/ the condensate trapped into the condenser pumps. Except for expansion through the trap, there are no Δp
accompanying flow through other components.
• The total steam flow expands through the 1st stage turbine (1-2).
At this location, a fraction of the flow is bled into the closed fwh
where it condenses.
• Sat. liquid at the extraction p. exits the fwh (7). The condensate is
then trapped into the condenser, where it is reunited with the
portion of the total flow passing through the 2nd stage turbine.
• The expansion (7-8) through the trap is irreversible (see the
dashed line on the T–s diagram).
• The total flow exiting the condenser as sat. liquid (4)is pumped to
the steam generator p. and enters the fwh (5). The T of the fw is
Although the closed heater operates with no Δp increased in passing through the fwh. The fw then exits (6).
in either stream, there is a source of irreversibility • The cycle is completed as the working fluid is heated in the steam
due to the stream-to-stream ΔT. generator at constant p (6-1).
10
 Cycle analysis
• The fraction of the total flow extracted, y, can be determined by applying the conservation of
mass and conservation of energy principles to a c.v. around the closed heater.
• Assuming no HT b/w the fwh and its surroundings and neglecting KE & PE effects, the mass and
energy rate balances reduce at steady state to give:

• Assuming a throttling process for expansion across the trap, state 8 is fixed using h8 ……. h7.

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 Your turn! – Part 1 – Numerical Example
NQ1- Air undergoes a constant pressure cooling process in which the
temperature decreases by 100C. Consider air is an ideal gas and determine
the magnitude and direction of the work for this process.

You have 8 mins

to solve this
question.

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 Your turn! – Part 2 – Conceptual Examples
CQ1-The ratio of the pump work input to the work developed by the
turbine is:
a. back work ratio.
b. isentropic efficiency.
c. net work.
d. thermal efficiency
You have 9 mins
to solve these CQ2- The performance parameter that compares work associated
questions. with an actual adiabatic expansion through a turbine with that of the
corresponding isentropic expansion is ____________.

CQ3- The pump work per unit of mass flowing of the ideal cycle, can
be approximated by (see the T-s diagram on the right):
a. ν3(h4 - h3)
b. ν3(T4 - T3)
c. ν3(s4 - s3)
d. ν3(p4 - p3)

13
 Multiple Feedwater Heaters
In analyzing regenerative vapor power cycles with
multiple fwh’s, it is better to base the analysis on a
unit of mass entering the 1st stage turbine.

To clarify the quantities of matter flowing through

the various plant components, the fractions of the
total flow removed at each extraction point and
the fraction of the total flow remaining at each
state point in the cycle should be labeled on a
schematic diagram of the cycle.

The fractions extracted are determined from mass

and energy rate balances for c.v.’s around each of
the fwh’s, starting with the highest-pressure heater
and proceeding to each lower-pressure heater in
turn.

Power plants with multiple fwh’s generally have at least one open fwh operating
at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure so that O2 and other dissolved
gases can be vented from the cycle. This procedure is deaeration, and needed to
maintain the purity of the working fluid in order to minimize corrosion. 14
Example-1: Consider a reheat–regenerative vapor power cycle with two fwh: a closed fwh and an open fwh. Steam enters the
first turbine at 8.0 MPa, 480oC and expands to 0.7 MPa. The steam is reheated to 440oC before entering the second turbine,
where it expands to the condenser pressure of 0.008 MPa. Steam is extracted from the first turbine at 2 MPa and fed to the
closed fwh. Feedwater leaves the closed heater at 205oC and 8.0 MPa, and condensate exits as saturated liquid at 2 MPa. The
condensate is trapped into the open fwh. Steam extracted from the second turbine at 0.3 MPa is also fed into the open fwh,
which operates at 0.3 MPa. The stream exiting the open fwh is saturated liquid at 0.3 MPa. The net power output of the cycle
is 100 MW. There is no stray HT from any component to its surroundings. If the working fluid experiences no irreversibilities as
it passes through the turbines, pumps, steam generator, reheater, and condenser, determine:
(a) the thermal efficiency,
(b) the mass flow rate of the steam entering the first turbine, in kg/h.

Engineering Model and Assumptions:

1. Each component in the cycle is analyzed as a c.v. at steady state.
2. There is no stray HT from any component to its surroundings.
3. The working fluid undergoes internally reversible processes as it passes through the turbines, pumps, steam generator,
reheater, and condenser.
4. The expansion through the trap is a throttling process.
5. KE and PE effects are negligible.
6. Condensate exits the closed fwh as a sat. liquid at 2 MPa. Feedwater exits the open fwh as a sat. liquid at 0.3 Mpa.
Condensate exits the condenser as a sat. liquid.

15
Solution to Example-1: After locating the states as shown on
Before ALL, locate the given data on the the left, we need to fix the states and
schematic and T-s diagram. gather the necessary thermodynamic
properties from tables.
State 1: 440oC and 8 MPa.
h1 = 3348.4 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.6586 kJ/kg.K
State 2: p2 = 2.0 MPa s2 = s1.
Interpolating in Table A-4, h2 = 2963.5
kJ/kg.
Similarly, state 3: h3 = 2741.8 kJ/kg.

State 4: superheated vapor (x=?) at 0.7 MPa, 440oC.

Table A-4, h4 = 3353.3 kJ/kg, s4 = 7.7571 kJ/kg.K.
Interpolating in Table A-4 @0.3 MPa and s5 = s4 = 7.7571
kJ/kg.K, the enthalpy at state 5 is h5 = 3101.5 kJ/kg.
Using s6 = s4, the quality at state 6 is: x6 = 0.9382

At the condenser exit, h7 = 173.88 kJ/kg. The specific enthalpy at

the exit of the first pump is:

We need h9, h10 , h11 , h12 and h13 to complete gathering

16
thermodynamic properties (see next slide).
Solution to Example-1 (cont’d):
The liquid leaving the open fwh at state 9 is sat. liquid (x=?) @ 0.3 MPa. The specific enthalpy is h9 = 561.47 kJ/kg.
The specific enthalpy at the exit of the second pump is:

The condensate leaving the closed heater is sat. liquid @ 2 MPa. From Table A-3, h12 = 908.79 kJ/kg.
The fluid passing through the trap undergoes a throttling process, so h13 = 908.79 kJ/kg. WHY?

The specific enthalpy of the feedwater exiting the closed heater at 8.0 MPa and 205oC is:

(h11 can also be obtained from Table A-5)

The fractions of the total flow diverted to the closed heater and open heater, respectively, are:
&

can be determined by applying mass and energy rate

balances to a c.v. Enclosing the closed heater

can be determined by applying mass and energy rate

balances to a c.v. Enclosing the open heater

17
Solution to Example-1 (cont’d):
(a) the thermal efficiency is: . So, we need to calculate each HT-rate and
power value to calculate thermal efficiency.

The work developed by the first turbine per unit of mass entering is:

For the second turbine:

For the first pump:

For the second pump:

The total heat added is the sum of the energy added by HT during boiling/superheating and reheating. When expressed
on the basis of a unit of mass entering the first turbine:

18
Solution to Example-1 (cont’d):

Substituting the calculated quantities, we get:

(b) The mass flow rate entering the first turbine can be determined using the given value of the net power output, as:

19
 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles
• The purpose of a refrigeration system is to maintain a cold region at a temperature below the temperature of its
surroundings. This is commonly achieved using the vapor refrigeration systems.

Carnot Refrigeration Cycle (This cycle is obtained by reversing the Carnot vapor power cycle.)

→Carnot refrigeration cycle operating between a region

@ TC and another region at a higher temperature, TH.

The cycle is executed by a refrigerant circulating steadily

through a series of components.

All processes are internally reversible.

Since HTs b/w the refrigerant and each region occur

with no temperature differences, there are no external
irreversibilities.

The energy transfers are positive in the directions

indicated by the arrows.
20
Carnot Refrigeration Cycle - details

• The refrigerant enters the evaporator as a two-phase liquid–vapor

mixture (4).
• In the evaporator some of the refrigerant changes phase from liquid
to vapor as a result of HT from the region at TC to the refrigerant. The
temperature and pressure of the refrigerant remain constant during
the process (4-1).
• The refrigerant is then compressed adiabatically from (1), where it is
a two-phase liquid–vapor mixture, to (2), where it is a sat. vapor.
During this process, the temperature of the refrigerant increases
from TC to TH, and the pressure also increases. The refrigerant passes
from the compressor into the condenser, where it changes phase
from sat. vapor to sat. liquid as a result of HT to the region at TH.
• The temperature and pressure remain constant in the process from
(2-3).
• The refrigerant returns to the state at the inlet of the evaporator by
expanding adiabatically through a turbine. In this process, from (3-4),
the temperature decreases from TH to TC, and there is a decrease in
pressure.

21
Carnot Refrigeration Cycle – details (cont’d)

Since the Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle is made up of internally reversible processes,
areas on the T–s diagram can be interpreted as ……. .
Area 1–a–b–4–1 is the heat added to the refrigerant from the cold region per unit mass
of refrigerant flowing.
Area 2–a–b–3–2 is the heat rejected from the refrigerant to the warm region per unit
mass of refrigerant flowing.

• The enclosed area 1–2–3–4–1 is the net HT from the refrigerant.

• The net HT from the refrigerant equals the net work done on the refrigerant.
• The net work is the difference between the compressor work input and the turbine work output.

The COP of any refrigeration cycle is the ratio of the refrigeration effect to the net work input required to achieve that
effect. For the Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle, the coefficient of performance is:

This is the the max. theoretical COP of any refrigeration

cycle operating between regions at TC and TH. 22
 Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems
Components of a vapor Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers
compression refrigeration system
Let us consider the steady-state operation of the vapor-compression system on the left.
Shown on the figure are the principal work and HT’s, which are
positive in the directions of the arrows. KE and PE changes are neglected.

We begin with the evaporator, where the desired refrigeration effect is achieved.
As the refrigerant passes through the evaporator, HT from the refrigerated space
results in the vaporization of the refrigerant. For a c.v. enclosing the refrigerant side of
the evaporator, the mass and energy rate balances reduce to give the rate of HT per
unit mass of refrigerant flowing as:

Refrigeration capacity

mass flow rate of the refrigerant

The refrigerant leaving the evaporator is compressed to a relatively high p. and T. by the compressor. Assuming no HT to or
from the compressor, the mass and energy rate balances give:

23
Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems
Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers (cont’d)

Next, the refrigerant passes through the condenser, where the refrigerant condenses and there is HT from the
refrigerant to the cooler surroundings. For a c.v. enclosing the refrigerant side of the condenser, the rate of HT
from the refrigerant per unit mass of refrigerant flowing is:

Finally, the refrigerant at state 3 enters the expansion valve and expands to the evaporator p. This process is
usually modeled as a throttling process for which h3=h4.
The refrigerant p. decreases in the irreversible adiabatic expansion, and there is an accompanying increase in
specific entropy. The refrigerant exits the valve at state 4 as a two-phase liquid–vapor mixture.

In the vapor-compression system, the net power input is equal to the compressor power, since the expansion
valve involves no power input or output. TheCOP of the vapor compression refrigeration system is:

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 Ideal Vapor-Compression Systems
If irreversibilities within the evaporator and condenser are
ignored, there are no frictional pressure drops, and the The cycle consists of the following series of processes:
refrigerant flows at constant pressure through the two
hex’s. Process 1–2s: Isentropic compression of the refrigerant from
state 1 to the condenser pressure at state 2s.
If compression occurs without irreversibilities, and stray HT Process 2s–3: HT from the refrigerant as it flows at constant p.
to the surroundings is also ignored, the compression through the condenser. The refrigerant exits as a liquid at state
process is isentropic.
3.
With these considerations, the vapor-compression Process 3–4: Throttling process from state 3 to a two-phase
refrigeration cycle labeled 1–2s–3–4–1 on the T–s diagram liquid–vapor mixture at 4.
results. Process 4–1: HT to the refrigerant as it flows at constant p.
through the evaporator to complete the cycle.

All processes of the cycle are internally reversible except for the
throttling process.

Despite the inclusion of this irreversible process, the cycle is

commonly referred to as the ideal vapor-compression cycle.

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Example-2: Refrigerant 134a is the working fluid in an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle that communicates
thermally with a cold region at 0oC and a warm region at 26oC. Sat. vapor enters the compressor at 0oC and sat. liquid leaves
the condenser at 26oC. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.08 kg/s.
Determine: (a) the compressor power, in kW, (b) the refrigeration capacity, (c) the COP, (d) the COP of a Carnot refrigeration
cycle operating between warm and cold regions at 26 and 0oC, respectively.
Engineering Model:
1. Each component of the cycle is analyzed as a c.v. at steady state.
2. Except for the expansion through the valve, which is a throttling process, all processes of the refrigerant
are internally reversible.
3. The compressor and expansion valve operate adiabatically.
4. KE and PE effects are negligible.
5. Sat. vapor enters the compressor, and sat. liquid leaves the condenser.
Let’s begin by fixing each of the principal states.
At the inlet to the compressor, the R134a is a sat. vapor (assumption
5) at 0oC, Table A-10, h1 = 247.23 kJ/kg, s1 = 0.9190 kJ/kg.K.
The pressure at state 2s is the saturation pressure corresponding to
26oC, or p2 = 6.853 bar. State 2s is fixed by p2 and the fact that the
specific entropy is constant for the adiabatic, internally reversible
compression process.

The R134a at state 2s is a superheated vapor with h2s = 264.7 kJ/kg.

State 3 is sat. liquid at 26oC, so h3 = 85.75 kJ/kg.
The expansion through the valve is a throttling process (assumption 2), so h4 = h3. 26
Solution to Example-2:
(a) The compressor work input is:

(b) The refrigeration capacity is the HT rate to the refrigerant passing through the evaporator, which is given by:

In the SI unit system, the capacity is normally expressed in kW. In the English unit system, the
refrigeration capacity may be expressed in Btu/h. Another commonly used unit for the refrigeration
capacity is the ton of refrigeration, which is equal to 200 Btu/min or about 211 kJ/min.

(c) The COP is:

(d) For a Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle operating at TH = 299 K and TC = 273 K, the COP is:

27