TER207 Thermodynamics II

Spring 2020-2021
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Elif Begüm Elçioğlu
TA: Res. Asst. Fatih Turan

Schedule: Wednesday 9-12

Check [Link] regularly to be notified when

a course material or announcement is posted.

E-mail: ebelcioglu@[Link]
fatihturan@[Link]

Office hours: Wednesday 12-13.

For appointments, please send an e-mail to Res. Asst. Fatih Turan in advance.

Most of the course content are taken from Moran, Shapiro, Boettner, Bailey, 2014, John Wiley & Sons., Inc. 1
 Let’s remember a few important poins:
Irreversibilities First, second, closed, Kelvin
Heat, work, negative Radiation, forced, free

- Exergy is destroyed by ……………….. .

- The change in exergy of a closed system can be accounted for in terms of exergy transfers by ………………..
and …………….. and the destruction of exergy due to irreversibilities within the system.
- The value of the exergy destruction cannot be ……………….. .
- Energy relates to the …………….. law of thermodynamics, while exergy relates to the …………….. law of
thermodynamics.
- Isolated system is a certain kind of ……………. system.
- The absolute temperature scale is ………….. .
- The HT mode that does not necessitate the presence of a medium is ……………………… .
- Convective HT can be classified as …………………….. convection and …………………….. convection.

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 From previous week: Introducing exergy
• Energy is conserved in every device or process. It cannot be destroyed. Energy entering a system
with fuel, electricity, flowing streams of matter, and so on can be accounted for in the products
and by-products. However, the energy conservation idea alone is inadequate for depicting some
important aspects of resource utilization.

• Exergy is the property that quantifies potential for use.

• Unlike energy, exergy is not conserved.
• It is destroyed by irreversibilities.
• It can be transferred to and from systems.

• Exergy transferred from a system to its surroundings without use typically represents a loss.
• Improved energy resource utilization can be realized by reducing exergy destruction within a
system and/or reducing losses.
• An objective in exergy analysis is to identify sites where exergy destructions and losses occur and
rank order them for significance. This allows attention to be centered on aspects of system
operation that offer the greatest opportunities for cost-effective improvements.
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 Exergy formulations that we covered thus far:
The exergy of a system, E, at
1 a specified state is:

2 The specific exergy, e, is :

.:. Recall exergy
3 transfers accompanying
HT & W.

4 steady-state form of the closed

system exergy rate balance

Open system
5 exergy rate balance
4
 Rankine cycle
Exergetic efficiency
formulations that we Turbine
covered thus far:
Condenser
Turbines

Pump
Compressors
and pumps
Boiler

Hex
Without
mixing
Rankine cycle
thermal
efficiency
Back work
ratio 5
 Ideal Rankine Cycle
If the working fluid passes through the various components of the simple vapor power cycle without irreversibilities,
frictional pressure drops would be absent from the boiler and condenser, and the working fluid would flow through these
components at constant pressure.
Also, in the absence of irreversibilities and HT with the surroundings, the processes through the turbine and pump would
be isentropic. A cycle adhering to these idealizations is the ideal Rankine cycle.

T-s diagram of ideal Rankine cycle

Process 1–2: Isentropic expansion of the working fluid through the
turbine from saturated vapor at state 1 to the condenser pressure.
Process 2–3: HT from the working fluid as it flows at constant p.
through the condenser exiting as saturated liquid at state 3.
Process 3–4: Isentropic compression in the pump to state 4 in the
compressed liquid region.
Process 4–1: HT to the working fluid as it flows at constant p. through
the boiler to complete the cycle.

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Note that the ideal Rankine cycle also includes the possibility of superheating the vapor, 1’–2’–3–4–1’.
 TER207 Thermodynamics II
Spring 2020-2021

Lecture-3: Exergy analysis (cont’d)

In this lecture, we will discuss:
• Rankine cycle (cont’d)

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 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses
• In this part we will consider irreversibilities (and losses) associated with the working fluid as it flows around the closed loop
of the sub-system of the Rankine cycle.
• These effects are classified as internal or external depending on whether they occur within this sub-system or its
surroundings.

Internal Effects
1) Turbine
The principal internal irreversibility experienced by the working fluid is associated
with expansion through the turbine. (HT from the turbine to its surroundings is
also a loss; but since it is of secondary importance, this loss is ignored herein.)
As illustrated by Process 1–2 on the T-s diagram, actual adiabatic expansion
through the turbine is accompanied by an increase in entropy. The work
developed in this process per unit of mass flowing is less than that for the
corresponding isentropic expansion 1–2s.
Isentropic turbine efficiency (ηt), accounts for the effect of irreversibilities within
the turbine in terms of actual and isentropic work amounts.

Designating states as in the T-s diagram, Actual work per unit mass flowing
the isentropic turbine efficiency is: Actual work per unit mass flowing
for isentropic expansion 8
 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses – Internal Effects (cont’d)
2) Pump
The work input to the pump required to overcome irreversibilities also reduces the net power output of the plant. As
illustrated in the T-s diagram, Process 3–4, the actual pumping process is accompanied by an increase in entropy.
For this process; the work input per unit of mass flowing is greater than that for the corresponding isentropic process 3–4s.
(As for the turbine, HT is ignored as secondary.) Actual pump work per
Isentropic pump efficiency, ηp, accounts for the effect of irreversibilities within unit mass flowing
the pump in terms of actual and isentropic work amounts.
Designating states as in the T-s diagram,
the isentropic pump efficiency is:

3) Other effects
Frictional effects resulting in pressure reductions are additional sources of internal irreversibility as the working fluid flows
through the boiler, condenser, and piping connecting the several components. For simplicity, they are ignored in
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subsequent analyses.
Study Question-1: Reconsider the Rankine cycle problem we discussed
in the previous week. This time include in the analysis that the turbine
and the pump each have an isentropic efficiency of 85%.
Determine for the modified cycle:
(a) the thermal efficiency,
(b) The mass flow rate of steam, in kg/h, for a net power output of 100
MW,
(c) the rate of HT in into the working fluid as it passes through the
boiler, in MW,
(d) the rate of HT out from the condensing steam as it passes through
the condenser, in MW,
(e) the mass flow rate of the condenser cooling water, in kg/h, if
cooling water enters the condenser at 15oC and exits as 35oC.

Analysis: Owing to the presence of irreversibilities during the expansion of the steam
through the turbine, there is an increase in specific entropy from turbine inlet to exit,
as shown on the accompanying T–s diagram. Similarly, there is an increase in specific
entropy from pump inlet to exit.
Let us begin the analysis by fixing each of the principal states. State 1 is the same as in
the previous example, so h1 = 2758.0 kJ/kg and s1 = 5.7432 kJ/kgK.
The specific enthalpy at the turbine exit, state 2, can be h2s is the specific enthalpy at
determined using the isentropic turbine efficiency, state 2s on the T–s diagram
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From the solution to the previous example, h2s = 1794.8 kJ/kg. Solving for h2 and inserting known values, we get:

State 3 is the same as in the previous example, h3 = 173.88 kJ/kg.

To determine the specific enthalpy at the pump exit (state 4), reduce mass and energy rate balances for a c.v. around the
pump to obtain the actual pump work input.

On rearrangement, the specific enthalpy at state 4 is

To determine h4 from this expression requires the pump work. Pump work can be evaluated using
the isentropic pump efficiency. Solving for the actual work input per unit mass flowing, we get:

We calculated the numerator of this expression in the previous example. Using this information:

The specific enthalpy at the pump exit is:

(a) The net power developed by the cycle is:

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The rate of HT to the working fluid as it passes through the boiler is

Thus, the thermal efficiency is

(b) With the net power expression of part (a), the mass flow rate of the steam is:

(c)

(d) The rate of HT from the condensing steam to the cooling water is

(e) The mass flow rate of the cooling water can be determined from

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 Your turn! – Part 1 – Numerical Example

Q1) Calculate the exergy of 1 kg water vapor at 6 MPa and 450oC.

Assume T0= 298K and P0= 100 kPa.

You have 5 mins Use the eqn. below and the appropriate thermodynamic table.
to solve this
question.

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 Your turn! – Part 2 – Conceptual Examples
Q2) The component of the Rankine cycle in which the working fluid vaporizes is called the
a. boiler.
b. condenser.
c. pump.
d. turbine.
You have 5 mins
to solve these
questions. Q3) An example of an external irreversibility associated with the Rankine cycle is:
a. expansion of the working fluid through the turbine.
b. frictional effects resulting in pressure drops.
c. combustion of fuel.
d. irreversibilities in the pump.

Q4) What is the second-law efficiency? How does it differ from the first-law efficiency?

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 Improving Performance:
Superheat, Reheat, and Supercritical Steam Generation
In actual plants modifications are usually incorporated to improve overall performance.
• We will consider superheat and reheat (commonly incorporated), and supercritical steam generation.

1) Superheat (We are not limited to having sat. vapor at the turbine inlet.)
Further energy can be added by HT to the steam, bringing it to a superheated
vapor condition at the turbine inlet.
This is accomplished in a separate hex called a superheater.
The combination of boiler and superheater is referred to as a steam generator.
The cycle with superheat has a higher average temperature of heat addition
than the cycle without superheating (cycle 1–2–3–4–1), so the thermal
efficiency is higher.
T-s diagram of an ideal Rankine cycle The quality at turbine exhaust state 2’ is greater than at state 2, accordingly,
with superheated vapor at the superheating also tends to alleviate the problem of low steam quality at the
turbine inlet is cycle 1’–2’–3–4–1’. turbine exhaust. With sufficient superheating, the turbine exhaust state may
even fall in the superheated vapor region.

If the quality of the mixture passing through the turbine becomes too low, liquid droplets in the flowing liquid–
vapor can erode the turbine blades, decrease in the turbine efficiency and increase the need for maintenance. 15
2) Reheat
With reheat, a power plant can take advantage of the increased efficiency that results with higher boiler pressures and
yet avoid low-quality steam at the turbine exhaust.
In the ideal reheat cycle, steam does not expand to the condenser pressure in a single stage. Instead, steam expands
through a first-stage turbine (1–2) to some pressure between the steam generator and condenser pressures.

Steam is then reheated in the steam generator (2–3). Ideally, there

would be no Δp as the steam is reheated. After reheating, the
steam expands in a second-stage turbine to the condenser
pressure (3–4).

Observe that with reheat the quality of

the steam at the turbine exhaust is
increased. This can be seen from the T–
s diagram by comparing state 4 with
state 4’, the turbine exhaust state
without reheating.

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 Reading: 3) Supercritical
• The temperature of the steam entering the turbine is restricted by
metallurgical limitations imposed by materials of superheater,
reheater, and turbine. High pressure in the steam generator also
requires piping that can withstand very high stresses at elevated T.

• Improved materials and fabrication methods have permitted

significant increases in maximum allowed cycle T and steam
generator p with increases in thermal efficiency that can save fuel
and reduce environmental impact.
• This progress now allows vapor power plants to operate with steam
generator pressures exceeding the critical pressure of water (22.1
MPa). These plants are known as supercritical vapor power plants.

In this case, steam generation occurs at a p above the critical p. No pronounced phase change occurs during
this process, and a conventional boiler is not used. Instead, water flowing through tubes is gradually heated
from liquid to vapor without the bubbling associated with boiling. In such cycles, heating is provided by
combustion of pulverized coal with air.
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Example-1: Steam is the working fluid in an ideal Rankine cycle with superheat and reheat. Steam enters the first-
stage turbine at 8.0 MPa, 480oC, and expands to 0.7 MPa. It is then reheated to 440oC before entering the second-
stage turbine, where it expands to the condenser pressure of 0.008 MPa. The net power output is 100 MW.
Determine
(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
(b) the mass flow rate of steam, in kg/h,
(c) the rate of heat transfer out from the condensing steam as it passes through the condenser, in MW.

Engineering Model & Assumptions:

1. Each component in the cycle is analyzed as
a c.v. at steady state.
2. All processes of the working fluid are
internally reversible.
3. The turbine and pump operate adiabatically.
4. Condensate exits the condenser as
saturated liquid.
5. KE and PE effects are negligible.

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Soln. to Example-1:
To begin, we fix each of the principal states.

State 1: @ inlet to the 1st turbine stage, p= 8.0 MPa, T= 480oC → the steam is a superheated vapor.
From Table A-4, h1 = 3348.4 kJ/kg and s1 = 6.6586 kJ/kgK.
State 2 is fixed by p2 = 0.7 MPa, s2 = s1 for the isentropic expansion through the first-stage turbine.
Using sat. liquid and sat. vapor data from Table A-3, the quality at state 2 (x2) is:

Now we can use x2 to calculate the specific enthalpy:

State 3 is superheated vapor with p3 = 0.7 MPa, T3 = 440oC.

From Table A-4, h3 = 3353.3 kJ/kg and s3 = 7.7571 kJ/kgK.

To fix state 4, use p4 = 0.008 MPa and s4 = s3 for the isentropic expansion through the second-stage turbine.
With data from Table A-3, the quality at state 4 is

Now we can use x4 to calculate the specific enthalpy:

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 Soln. to Example-1 (cont’d):
State 5 is saturated liquid at 0.008 MPa, so h5 = 173.88 kJ/kg.
Finally, for the state at the pump exit (state 6), h6 = 181.94 kJ/kg. (Left as an exercise!)
(a) Here we will calculate the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
The net power developed by the cycle is: Why do we have a minus sign
in front of the pump power?

Mass and energy rate balances for the two turbine stages and the pump yields:

The mass flow rate of the steam

The total rate of HT to the working fluid as it passes

through the boiler–superheater and reheater is:

Using these expressions, the thermal efficiency is:

= 40.3%
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Soln. to Example-1 (cont’d):

(b) The mass flow rate of the steam can be obtained with the expression for net power given in part (a).

(c) The rate of HT from the condensing steam to the cooling water is

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 Improving Performance: Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle
• regenerative feedwater heating, or regeneration

• In cycle 1–2–3–4–a–1, the working fluid enters the boiler as a

compressed liquid at state 4 and is heated while in the liquid phase to
state a.
• With regenerative feedwater heating, the working fluid enters the
boiler at a state between 4 and a.
• As a result, the average temperature of heat addition is increased,
thereby tending to increase the thermal efficiency.

Open Feedwater a direct-contact hex in which streams at different

Heaters T mix to form a stream at an intermediate T.

• For this cycle, the working fluid passes isentropically through the turbine stages and pumps, and flow through the
steam generator, condenser, and feedwater heater takes place with no pressure drop in any of these components.
• Still, there is a source of irreversibility owing to mixing within the feedwater heater.

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Operating principle:
Steam enters the first-stage turbine at state 1 and expands to state 2, where a fraction of the total flow is extracted into an
open feedwater heater operating at the extraction pressure, p2. The rest of the steam expands through the second-stage
turbine to state 3. This portion of the total flow is condensed to saturated liquid, state 4, and then pumped to the extraction
pressure and introduced into the feedwater heater at state 5. A single mixed stream exits the feedwater heater at state 6.

For this case, the mass flow rates of the streams entering the feedwater
heater are such that state 6 is saturated liquid at the extraction pressure.

The liquid at state 6 is then pumped to

the steam generator pressure and enters
the steam generator at state 7.

Finally, the working fluid is heated from

state 7 to state 1 in the
steam generator.

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 Cycle analysis: open feedwater heater case
An important initial step in analyzing any regenerative vapor cycle is the evaluation of the mass flow rates through each of
the components. Taking a single control volume enclosing both turbine stages, the mass rate balance reduces at steady
state to:

the rate at which mass

the rate at which enters the first-stage
mass is extracted turbine at state 1
and exits at state 2 the rate at which =y
mass exits the
second-stage Denoting the fraction of the total flow extracted at
turbine at state 3. state 2 by y, the fraction of the total flow passing
through the second-stage turbine is:

The fraction y can be determined by applying the conservation of mass and conservation of energy principles to a
c.v. around the feedwater heater (Assuming no HT between the feedwater heater and its surroundings, and
ignoring KE and PE effects):

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 Cycle analysis: open feedwater heater case (cont’d)
Turbine: The total work is the sum of the work developed by each
turbine stage.
Neglecting KE and PE effects and assuming no HT with the
surroundings, we can express the total turbine work on the basis of
a unit of mass passing through the first-stage turbine as:

Pump: The total pump work is the sum of the work required to
operate each pump individually.
On the basis of a unit of mass passing through the first-stage turbine,
the total pump work is:

Steam generator: The energy added by HT to the working fluid

passing through the steam generator, per unit of mass
expanding through the first-stage turbine and the energy
rejected by heat transfer to the cooling water is:

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Example-2: Consider a regenerative vapor power cycle with one open feedwater heater. Steam enters the
turbine at 8.0 MPa, 480oC and expands to 0.7 MPa, where some of the steam is extracted and diverted to the
open feedwater heater operating at 0.7 MPa. The remaining steam expands through the second-stage turbine
to the condenser pressure of 0.008 MPa. Saturated liquid exits the open feedwater heater at 0.7 MPa. The
isentropic efficiency of each turbine stage is 85% and each pump operates isentropically. If the net power
output of the cycle is 100 MW, determine (a) the thermal efficiency and (b) the mass flow rate of steam
entering the first turbine stage, in kg/h.
Engineering Model:
1. Each component in the cycle is at
steady-state & c.v.
2. All processes of the working fluid
are internally reversible, except for
the expansions through the two
turbine stages and mixing in the
open feedwater heater.
3. The turbines, pumps, and
feedwater heater operate
adiabatically.
4. KE and PE effects are negligible.
5. Saturated liquid exits the open
feedwater heater, and saturated
liquid exits the condenser.
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 Soln. to Example-2:
To begin, we work on the principal states and determine the necessary property values.

The specific enthalpy at states 1 and 4 can be obtained from the steam tables. The specific enthalpy at state 2 is evaluated in
the previous problem. The specific entropy at state 2 can be obtained from the steam tables using the known values of
enthalpy and pressure at this state.
In summary, h1 = 3348.4 kJ/kg, h2 = 2832.8 kJ/kg, s2 = 6.8606 kJ/kg K, h4 = 173.88 kJ/kg.

The specific enthalpy at state 3 can be determined using the isentropic efficiency of the second-stage turbine:

With s3s = s2, the quality at state 3s is x3s = 0.8208; using this, we get h3s= 2146.3 kJ/kg. Hence,

State 6 is saturated liquid at 0.7 MPa. Thus, h6 = 697.22 kJ/kg.

Since the pumps operate isentropically, the specific enthalpy values at states 5 and 7 can be determined as:

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Soln. to Example-2 (cont’d):
Applying mass and energy rate balances to a control volume enclosing the open feedwater heater,
the fraction y of the flow extracted at state 2 can be determined from:

(a) In this part we need to determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle:

Let’s evaluate the components of this relation one by one:

The total turbine work output on the basis of a unit of mass passing through the first-stage turbine:

The total pump work per unit of mass passing through the first-stage turbine:

The heat added in the steam generator per unit of mass passing through the first-stage turbine is

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Soln. to Example-2 (cont’d):

Substituting these values to the thermal efficiency relation, we get:

(b) The mass flow rate of the steam entering the turbine can be determined using the given value for the net power
output, 100 MW.

&

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 Study Questions
1- Vapor at 13 MPa and 510oC is expanded in a high pressure turbine until its T & p
reaches 325oC and 3.4 MPa.
a) Draw a sketch of the problem.
b) Write down the assumptions you may use in your analysis.
c) Calculate the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.

2- Study the cycle analyses we performed this week and the previous week. Work on
the solutions and ask if you have any questions.

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