Module-1

1. What is conditional probability? Prove that

 Suppose in an experiment that involves a pair of events A and B. Let P[B|A] denote the
probability of event B, given that event A has occurred. The probability P[B|A] is called
the conditional probability of B given A.
 Assuming that A has nonzero probability, the conditional probability P[B|A] is defined
by

where is the joint probability of A and B

or

 The joint probability of two events may be expressed as the product of the conditional
probability of one event given the other, and the elementary probability of the other.

The above equation is called as Baye’s rule.

2. Define autocorrelation. Discuss properties of the autocorrelation function.

 The autocorrelation function of the process X(t) is defined as the expectation of the
product of two random variables X(t1) and X(t2), obtained by observing X(t) at times
t1 and t2, respectively.

Where is the joint probability density function of the random variables

X(t1) and X(t2).

Properties of the autocorrelation function:

Redefining the autocorrelation function of a stationary process X(t) as

1) The mean-square value of the process may be obtained from 𝑅𝑋 (𝜏) simply by putting

𝜏 = 0 in the above equation

2) The autocorrelation function 𝑅𝑋 (𝜏) is an even function of 𝜏

 autocorrelation function 𝑅𝑋 (𝜏) can be re written as

3) The autocorrelation function 𝑅𝑋 (𝜏) has its maximum magnitude at 𝜏 = 0

3. Develop program to generate the probability density function of Gaussian distribution

function.

% Parameters
mu = 0; % Mean
sigma = 1; % Standard deviation

% Range of x values
x = -10:0.01:10;

% Gaussian PDF formula

pdf = (1/(sigma*sqrt(2*pi))) * exp(-((x - mu).^2) / (2*sigma^2));

% Plot
plot(x, pdf, 'b', 'LineWidth', 2);
grid on;

xlabel('x');
ylabel('Probability Density Function');
title('Gaussian (Normal) Distribution PDF');

4. Define probability with an example. Discuss their properties (axioms).

 Probability can be modeled by an experiment with an outcome that is subject to
chance. if the experiment is repeated, the outcome can differ because of the influence
of an underlying random phenomenon or chance mechanism.
 For example, the experiment may be the observation of the result of tossing a fair coin.
the possible outcomes of a trial are ‘‘heads’’ or ‘‘tails.’’
 Properties (axioms):

1) The probability of any event will be between 0 and 1.

2) The total probability of the sample space is 1

3) If A and B are two mutually exclusive events, then

Fig: Venn diagram presenting a

geometric interpretation

of the three axioms

of probability
5. Illustrate the relationship between sample space, event and probability.

Fig: Illustration of the relationship between sample space, events, and probability.

 Probability can be modeled by an experiment with an outcome that is subject to

chance. if the experiment is repeated, the outcome can differ because of the influence
of an underlying random phenomenon or chance mechanism.
 An outcome (sample point) is a single possible result of a random experiment.
 The set of all possible outcomes of the experiment is called the sample space, which
we denote by S.
 An event corresponds to either a single sample point or a set of sample points in the
space S.
 The probability function assigns a value between 0 and 1 to each of these events.
 Two events are mutually exclusive if the occurrence of one event precludes the
occurrence of the other event.
6. Explain the properties of Gaussian process with necessary equations.

Property 1:
The Gaussian PDF is symmetric about its mean value μ.
𝑓X (μ − σ) = 𝑓X (μ + σ)

Property 2:
The Gaussian PDF reaches its peak at the mean value x=μ.

Property 3:
The area under the Gaussian PDF curve below and above the mean value is ½.

The total area under the Gaussian PDF curve is 1

Property 4:

For a Gaussian (normal) distribution:

 The first derivative is positive for x<μ

 The first derivative is zero at x=μ
 The first derivative is negative for x>μ

Module-2
1. Explain the amplitude modulation with necessary equations and sketches in time
domain and frequency domain.
 Amplitude modulation is the process of altering the amplitude of the carrier
signal in accordance with instantaneous value of the message signal by keeping
frequency and phase of the carrier signal constant.
 Instantaneous value of the modulating signal

 Instantaneous value of the carrier signal

 The equation for an AM signal

 By using the trigonometric identity

 Therefore, AM signal becomes

where the first term is the carrier

second term, containing the difference fc - fm, is the lower sideband
third term, containing the sum fc + fm, is the upper sideband.

Time domain display of an AM signal

Frequency-domain display of an AM signal

2. Define modulation index and percentage of modulation. Explain over modulation and
distortion.
 The ratio of message signal amplitude to that unmodulated carrier signal
amplitude is called modulation index (m or 𝜇 )
𝑉𝑚
𝑚=
𝑉𝑐
 Multiplying the modulation index by 100 gives the percentage of modulation
𝑉𝑚
%𝑚 = ∗ 100
𝑉𝑐
 If the amplitude of the modulating voltage is higher than the carrier voltage,
modulation index 𝑚 will be greater than 1, causing distortion of the modulated
waveform. The resulting in a condition called over modulation.

 If modulation index is less than 1, then the modulated waveform would look
like below.

3. Derive the expression for amplitude modulation(AM) power in terms of modulation

index.
 The total transmitted power PT is simply the sum of the carrier power Pc and
the power in the two sidebands PUSB and PLSB.

 The original AM equation

  The rms carrier and sideband voltages are

 The power in the carrier and sidebands can be calculated by using

𝑊𝐾𝑇, 𝑽𝒎 = 𝒎𝑽𝒄

4. Write a MATLAB code to generate amplitude modulation and demodulation

waveforms and display its spectrums.
%% Modulation index
m= 0.8;
%% Time Pereiod of Simulation :
t = linspace(0, 0.2, 100000);

%% Message Signal :
Am = 14;
fm = 200;
ym = Am*cos(2*pi*fm*t);
figure;
subplot(4, 1, 1);
plot(t(1:10000), ym(1:10000));
title('Message Signal');
xlabel('time(t)');
ylabel('Amplitude');

%% Carrier Signal :
Ac = Am/m;
fc = 2000;
yc = Ac*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
subplot(4, 1, 2);
plot(t(1:10000), yc(1:10000));
 title('Carrier Signal');
xlabel('time(t)');
ylabel('Amplitude');

%% Modulated Signal :
y = ammod(ym, fc, 100000, 0, Ac);
subplot(4, 1, 3);
plot(t(1:10000), y(1:10000));
title('Modulated Signal');
xlabel('time(t)');
ylabel('Amplitude');

%% Demodulated Signal :
z = amdemod(y, fc, 100000, 0, Ac);
subplot(4, 1, 4);
plot(t(1:10000), z(1:10000));
title('Demodulated Signal');
xlabel('time(t)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
ylim([-20, 20]);

5. An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 30W. the % of modulation is 85%. Calculate

a)PT b)PSB in one side band
6. Explain how amplitude modulated wave generated using diode modulator

Fig: Amplitude modulation with a diode.

(a) Modulating signal.

(b) Carrier.

(c) Linearly mixed

modulating signal and carrier.

(d) Positive-going signal

after diode D1.

(e) Am output signal.

Waveforms in the diode modulator.

 Diode modulator consists of a resistive mixing network, a diode rectifier, and

an LC tuned circuit.
 The carrier is applied to one input resistor and the modulating signal to the
other. The mixed signals appear across R3.
  The composite waveform is applied to a diode rectifier. Diode conducts
positive half-cycles of the input wave. During the negative portions of the
wave, the diode is cut off and no signal passes.
 The positive-going pulses are applied to the LC-tuned circuit. The coil and
capacitor repeatedly exchange energy, causing an oscillation at the resonant
frequency.
 The oscillation of the tuned circuit creates negative half-cycle for every
positive input pulse.

Module-3

1. Explain the principles of frequency modulation with waveforms and equations.

 The frequency of the carrier wave is changed according to the amplitude of

the message signal by keeping amplitude and phase of the carrier constant is
known as frequency modulation.
 Therefore, information is transmitted by the frequency variation in the case of
FM. The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating
signal is known as the frequency deviation fd.
 Initially when the amplitude of the modulating signal is minimum during its
positive half cycle, then the frequency of the modulated signal is somewhat
similar to the carrier wave.
 With the increase in the amplitude of the message signal the frequency of the
carrier wave increases.
 As the amplitude of the message signal starts decreasing, frequency of the
carrier wave decreases.
  Modulating Signal

 Carrier wave

 In FM, the frequency changes according to the modulating voltage. Hence,

instantaneous frequency is given as,

Here, Δf (fd) denotes the frequency deviation.

2. What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM signal with a deviation of 30 kHz and a

maximum of modulating signal of 5 kHz. Determine
(i) Modulation index (MI)
(ii) Bandwidth by Carson’s rule