PHYSICS 003

CAPACITORS & CURRENT ELECTRICITY

PART 1: ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY & THE ELECTRIC

FIELD

When we assemble charges, we do work. This work is stored

as electrostatic potential energy. We can understand this energy in terms
of the electric field itself.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor's Electric Field

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor with plate area 𝐴, separation 𝑑, and

surface charge density 𝜎 (charge per unit area). The uniform electric field
between the plates (ignoring fringing) is:

𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀0

where 𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space.

If we pull the plates slightly apart (increase separation by 𝛥𝑥), we do work

against the electrostatic attraction. The surface charge density 𝜎 remains
constant (charge 𝑄 doesn't change). The force on one plate due to
1
the other plate's field is 𝐹 = 𝑄𝐸 (the factor ½ arises because the field from
2

the other plate is half the total field).

1
Work done = 𝐹𝛥𝑥 = 𝑄𝐸𝛥𝑥
2

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 𝜎
Since 𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴 and = , we substitute:
𝜀0

1 1 1
Work= (𝜎𝐴)𝐸𝛥𝑥 = (𝜀0 𝐸)𝐴𝐸𝛥𝑥 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 (𝐴𝛥𝑥)
2 2 2

Here, 𝐴𝛥𝑥 is the new volume in which the electric field exists.

Therefore, Energy Density (energy per unit volume) is:

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 1
𝑢= = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝐽/𝑚3 )
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2

This is a fundamental concept: energy is stored in the electric field

itself. The total potential energy stored in any capacitor is:

1
𝑈 = ∫ 𝜀0 𝐸 2 𝑑𝑉
2

For a parallel-plate capacitor with uniform field 𝐸 = 𝑉/𝑑 and volume 𝐴𝑑:

1 1 𝜀0 𝐴 2 1 2
𝑈 = 𝜀0 (𝑑𝑉)2 (𝐴𝑑) = 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉
2 2 𝑑 2

1 𝑄2
Also recall: 𝑈 = 𝑄𝑉 =
2 2𝐶

PART 2: CAPACITANCE

Capacitance (𝐶) is the ability of a system to store charge per unit potential
difference:

𝑄
𝐶= (𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑, 𝐹 = 𝐶/𝑉)
𝑉

𝑄
 For an isolated sphere of radius 𝑅: 𝑉 = ⇒ 𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

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 𝜀0 𝐴
 For parallel plates (area 𝐴, separation 𝑑): 𝐶 = (with vacuum between)
𝑑

Note: When two conductors are near each other (e.g., two spheres), their
presence affects each other's potential. Bringing a negative charge near a
positive sphere lowers the sphere's potential, thus increasing its effective
capacitance.

Factors Affecting Capacitance of a Parallel-Plate Capacitor:

1. Area of plates (𝑨): Larger area → higher 𝐶.

2. Distance between plates (𝒅): Smaller distance → higher 𝐶.
3. Dielectric material: Inserting an insulator (dielectric) increases 𝐶 by
𝜅𝜀0 𝐴
factor 𝑘 (dielectric constant): 𝐶 = .
𝑑

4. Geometry: Shape and arrangement of plates.

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Series Connection:

 Characteristics:

o Charge on each capacitor is the same: 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄

o Total voltage divides: 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
1 1 1
o = + +⋯
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2

o Equivalent capacitance is less than the smallest individual capacitor.

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 Parallel Connection:

 Characteristics:

o Voltage across each capacitor is the same: 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉

o Total charge divides: 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
o 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯
o Equivalent capacitance is greater than any individual capacitor.
Energy Storage & Energy Density (Recap)
1 𝑄2 1
 Energy stored: 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 2 = = 𝑄𝑉
2 2𝐶 2
1
 Energy density (in electric field): 𝑢 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 (in vacuum). This shows 𝑢 ∝ 𝐸 2 .
2

Fringing Effect

 Explanation: The fringing effect is the bending of electric field lines

at the edges of capacitor plates. It occurs because the field is not
perfectly confined between the plates; it "fringes" out into the surrounding

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 space. This leads to non-uniformity in the field (not strictly caused by air
bubbles, but by geometry). It slightly increases the effective capacitance.

PART 3: RC CIRCUITS (CHARGING & DISCHARGING)

An RC circuit contains a resistor (𝑅) and a capacitor (𝐶). We analyze how

charge, voltage, and current change over time.

Time Constant (𝝉 𝒐𝒓 𝑻): 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠). It represents the time for the

capacitor to charge to about 63% or discharge to about 37% of its initial
value.

Charging a Capacitor (with a battery of EMF,𝜺)

 Process: Current flows, charging the capacitor. Top plate becomes

positive, bottom plate negative.
 Equations:

o Charge: 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝜀(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )

o Voltage across capacitor: 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝜀(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )
𝜀
o Current: 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 = 𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝑅

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 t

 Key Insights:

o At 𝑡 = 0 (uncharged capacitor): acts like a wire (short circuit) – maximum

current.
o At 𝑡 → ∞ (fully charged): acts like an open switch – zero current.
Discharging a Capacitor (initial charge 𝒒𝟎 , no battery)

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 Process: Capacitor releases its stored energy through the resistor. Charge
and voltage decay.
 Equations:

o Charge: 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶

o Voltage: 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉0 = 𝑞0 /𝐶)
𝑞0
o Current: 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 = 𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 (current flows in opposite direction to
𝑅𝐶

charging case).

 Key Insight: A fully charged capacitor can drive current (like a battery), but
as it discharges, the current decreases. When fully discharged (𝑞 = 0),
current stops.

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 Multiple Components in RC Circuits

 Multiple resistors in series during charging: Replace with 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 .

Time constant 𝜏 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )𝐶.
 Multiple capacitors in parallel during charging: Replace with 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 +
𝐶2 . Time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ).

PART 4: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric Current (𝑰): Rate of flow of charge.

𝑄
𝐼 = (𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴 = 𝐶/𝑠)
𝑡

If 𝑁 particles each with charge 𝑞 pass in time 𝑡, then 𝐼 = 𝑁𝑞/𝑡.

Drift Velocity (𝒗𝒅)

In a conductor with no applied electric field, electrons move randomly (due

to thermal energy), so average velocity is zero. When an electric field is
applied, electrons gain a small net average velocity opposite to the field
direction – this is drift velocity.

Relationship between current, drift velocity, and charge carrier density (𝑛):
𝐼
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 ⇒ 𝑣𝑑 =
𝑛𝑒𝐴

where:

 𝑛 = number of free electrons per unit volume (𝑚−3 )

 𝑒 = electron charge (1.6 × 10−19 𝐶)
 𝐴 = cross-sectional area (𝑚2 )

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 Current Density (𝑱⃗)

Current density is the current per unit cross-sectional area (a vector, direction
= direction of positive charge flow).

𝐼
𝐽= (𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝐴/𝑚2 )
𝐴

In terms of drift velocity: 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 .

PART 5: SIMPLE CIRCUITS & EMF

Electromotive Force (𝑬𝑴𝑭, 𝜺): The total energy supplied per unit charge
by a battery. It is the open-circuit voltage (voltage across terminals when
no current flows).

Internal Resistance (𝒓): Every real battery has internal resistance. When
current 𝐼 flows, the terminal voltage 𝑉 is:

𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟

 Open circuit (𝑰 = 𝟎): 𝑉 = 𝜀.

𝜀
 Closed circuit (external resistance 𝑹): 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 ⇒ 𝐼 =
𝑅+𝑟

Cells in Series and Parallel

 Series: Total EMF = algebraic sum (add if aiding, subtract if opposing). Total
internal resistance = sum of individual 𝑟′𝑠.

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 Parallel (identical cells): Total EMF = EMF of one cell. Total internal
resistance 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟/𝑛 (for 𝑛 identical cells).

Ohm's Law

For a metallic conductor at constant temperature, the current is directly

proportional to the potential difference:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

 Ohmic conductors: Obey Ohm's Law (metals).

 Non-ohmic conductors: Do not obey Ohm's Law (semiconductors, diodes).
Resistance (𝑹)

Resistance depends on:

 Length (𝑙): 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙
 Cross-sectional area (𝐴): 𝑅 ∝ 1/𝐴
𝑙
 Resistivity (𝜌): 𝑅 = 𝜌 (𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜌: 𝛺 ⋅ 𝑚)
𝐴

 Temperature: For metals, 𝑅 increases with 𝑇; for

semiconductors, 𝑅 decreases with 𝑇.
o 𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )], where 𝛼 is temperature coefficient of resistivity.

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 Conductance (𝑮)

The reciprocal of resistance: 𝐺 = 1/𝑅 (Unit: Siemens, 𝑆).

Conductivity 𝜎 (𝑜𝑟 𝜃) is the reciprocal of resistivity: 𝐺 = 𝜎𝐴/𝑙.

Resistors in Series and Parallel

 Series: 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 . Current same through all.

1 1 1
 Parallel: 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = + + . Voltage same across all.
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Electrical Energy and Power

 Energy supplied: 𝐸 = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝐼𝑡𝑉

𝐸 𝑉2
 Power: 𝑃 = = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = (𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡, 𝑊 = 𝐽/𝑠)
𝑡 𝑅
𝑉2
 Joule's Law (Heating): Heat dissipated in a resistor: 𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑡=
𝑅

𝑉𝐼𝑡.
 Commercial unit: 1 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝑘𝑊ℎ) = 3.6 × 106 𝐽.

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 PART 6: SHUNTS & MULTIPLIERS (with Galvanometer)

A galvanometer (symbol: 𝐺 with a circle) is a sensitive current-measuring

device (full-scale deflection current 𝐼𝑔 , coil resistance 𝑅𝑔 ).

Shunt (to measure larger currents - Ammeter)

 Purpose: Bypass most of the current around the galvanometer.

 Calculation: Voltage across galvanometer = voltage across shunt: 𝐼𝑔
, 𝑅𝑔 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 , and 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 .
𝐼𝑔 , 𝑅𝑔
𝑅𝑠 =
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔
Multiplier (to measure voltage - Voltmeter)

 Purpose: Drop most of the voltage across the multiplier.

 Calculation: Total voltage 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅𝑚 ).

𝑉
𝑅𝑚 = − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑔
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 PART 7: KIRCHHOFF'S RULES & COMPLEX CIRCUITS

1. Junction Rule (Kirchhoff's Current Law - KCL)

 Statement: The sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum of

currents leaving the junction.

 Physical basis: Conservation of charge.

2. Loop Rule (Kirchhoff's Voltage Law - KVL)

 Statement: The sum of the potential differences (voltage rises and drops)
around any closed loop is zero.
 Sign conventions (for a chosen loop direction, e.g., clockwise):

o Resistor: If loop direction matches current direction: 𝑉 = −𝐼𝑅 (drop). If

opposite: 𝑉 = +𝐼𝑅 (rise).
o Battery (𝑬𝑴𝑭 𝜺): If loop goes from negative to positive terminal (inside
battery): 𝑉 = +𝜀 (rise). If from positive to negative: 𝑉 = −𝜀 (drop).

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 Example Application: For a circuit with two loops and one junction, apply
KCL and KVL to solve for unknown currents.

PART 8: POTENTIAL DIVIDERS

A potential divider uses resistors to obtain a desired fraction of an input

voltage.

Fixed Potential Divider (No Load)

𝑅2
 Formula: 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ×
𝑅1 +𝑅2

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 Variable Potential Divider (Potentiometer)

 With Load: If a load resistor 𝑅𝐿 is connected across the output, the effective
resistance of the lower arm becomes 𝑅2 in parallel with 𝑅𝐿 altering the
division.
Slide Wire Potentiometer

 Principle: Find the balance point (𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙) where galvanometer shows zero
deflection. At balance, no current flows from the unknown source.
𝜀𝑥 𝑙𝑥
= 𝑜𝑟 𝜀1 𝑙2 = 𝜀2 𝑙1
𝜀𝑠 𝑙𝑠

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 Use: Measures EMF without drawing any current from the source (ideal
voltmeter).

PART 9: WHEATSTONE BRIDGE & SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE

Wheatstone bridge (for measuring unknown resistance)

 Balance Condition: When galvanometer reads zero (no current through it):
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅2
= ⇒ 𝑅𝑥 = .𝑅
𝑅2 𝑅𝑥 𝑅1 3
Slide Wire Bridge (Metre Bridge) - a practical Wheatstone bridge

 Balance condition (null point at length 𝒍 from one end): The wire acts
as two resistors proportional to their lengths (𝐿1 −𝐿2 = 100 − 𝐿1 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚).
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 𝑋 𝐿1 𝐿1
= ⇒𝑋=𝑅⋅
𝑅 𝐿2 𝐿2
where 𝐿1 is the length on the same side as 𝑋.

MAGNETIC FIELD

PART 1: EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD

The Dynamo Effect

The Earth's magnetic field is not caused by a permanent solid magnet inside
the core (high temperatures destroy permanent magnetism). Instead, it is
generated by the dynamo effect:

 Source: The Earth's liquid outer core (mostly molten iron and nickel) is an
electrically conducting fluid.
 Mechanism: Convection currents (driven by heat escaping from the solid
inner core and compositional changes) cause the conducting fluid to move
across existing weak magnetic fields. This induces electric currents, which in
turn produce magnetic fields that amplify the original field – a self-
sustaining dynamo.
 Energy sources: Thermal energy (leftover from Earth's formation +
radioactive decay) and compositional energy (light elements rising as the core
solidifies).
Core Orientation & Magnetic Poles

 The Earth behaves like a giant bar magnet but with its magnetic
poles inverted relative to geographic poles.

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o Geographic North Pole (true north) is near the magnetic south pole of
Earth's internal magnet (because the north end of a compass needle points
south into the Earth).
o Geographic South Pole is near the magnetic north pole.
Three Elements of Earth's Magnetic Field at Any Location

⃗⃗ (𝑜𝑟 𝑅⃗⃗) is completely described by three

The local magnetic field vector 𝐵
quantities:

Element Symbol Definition

The angle between geographic
Declination north (true north) and magnetic
𝐷
(𝜽 𝒐𝒓 𝑫) north (direction of horizontal
component) at that location.
The angle that the total magnetic field
vector makes with the horizontal
Inclination / Dip
𝐼 plane. At the equator 𝐼 = 00 (field
(δ or I)
lines horizontal). At the magnetic
poles: 𝐼 = 900 (field lines vertical).

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 The component of the total field acting
Horizontal
𝐵𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝐻 along the horizontal plane: 𝐻=
component
𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐼.

Mathematical Relationships

Let 𝐵 = total magnetic field intensity, 𝐻 = horizontal component, 𝑉 =

vertical component.

𝐻 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐼
𝑉 𝑉
tan 𝐼 = ⇒ 𝐼 = arctan ( )
𝐻 𝐻
𝐵 = √𝐻 2 + 𝑉 2

PART 2: BASIC MAGNETISM

Magnet: A material that produces a magnetic field, with two poles: North
(N) and South (S). Field lines emerge from the North Pole and enter the
South Pole.

Characteristics of Magnetic Field Lines

1. They are continuous closed loops (no beginning or end).

2. They never cross each other.
3. They emerge from N, enter S, and continue through the magnet.

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 4. No magnetic monopoles exist (unlike electric charges). Breaking a
magnet always produces two smaller magnets, each with both N and S
poles.
PART 3: MAGNETIC FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE

⃗⃗ experiences a force:
A charge 𝑞 moving with velocity 𝑣⃗ in a magnetic field 𝐵

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⃗⃗.
where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑣⃗ and 𝐵

 Direction: Given by the right-hand rule (for positive charge). Fingers

⃗⃗, thumb gives 𝐹⃗ . For negative charge,
point in direction of 𝑣⃗, curl towards 𝐵
reverse direction.
Special Cases:

 ⃗⃗ (𝜃 = 0° 𝑜𝑟 180°): 𝐹 = 0.
If 𝑣⃗ ∥ 𝐵
 ⃗⃗ (𝜃 = 90°): 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 (maximum).
If 𝑣⃗ ⊥ 𝐵
Sign Conventions for Vectors into/out of page:

 ⊙ : Out of the page (toward you)

 ⊗ : Into the page (away from you)
Motion in a Uniform Magnetic Field (Perpendicular Velocity)

⃗⃗ perpendicularly, it moves in
When a charged particle enters a uniform 𝐵
a circle (centripetal force provided by magnetic force):

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣
𝑞𝑣𝐵 = ⇒𝑟=
𝑟 𝑞𝐵

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 𝑟 = radius of circular path (cyclotron radius).

PART 4: MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE

For a straight wire of length 𝐿 carrying current 𝐼 in a uniform magnetic

⃗⃗:
field 𝐵

𝐹⃗ = 𝐼𝐿⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⃗⃗.
where 𝜃 is the angle between the wire direction and 𝐵

Force on a Rectangular Current Loop in a Uniform Field

 ⃗⃗⃗ is zero. However, there is

Net force on a closed loop in a uniform 𝑩
a torque that tends to rotate the loop.
Torque (𝝉) on a loop:

𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
where:

 𝐴 = area of the loop

 ⃗⃗ and the normal to the plane of the loop (or between
𝜙 = angle between 𝐵
⃗⃗ and the plane, depending on definition – be consistent).
𝐵
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 ⃗⃗ (𝜙 = 90°), 𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 (maximum).
For a loop perpendicular to 𝐵

Example calculation (as in your notes):

 Side length 𝐿 =32 𝑚, current 𝐼 = 12 𝐴, 𝐵 = 0.25 𝑇.

 Force on one side (perpendicular): 𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 = 12 × 0.32 × 0.25 = 0.96 𝑁.
 Torque (assuming square loop, axis through center): 𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 12 ×
(0.32)2 × 0.25 = 0.3072 𝑁𝑚.

PART 5: MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT

Field due to a Long Straight Wire

The magnetic field at a distance 𝑟 from an infinitely long straight wire carrying
current 𝐼:

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟

 𝜇0 = permeability of free space = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇 · 𝑚/𝐴

 Direction: Right-hand grip rule – thumb in direction of current, fingers curl
⃗⃗ (circles around wire).
in direction of 𝐵
Force between Two Parallel Current-Carrying Wires

Two parallel wires attract if currents are in the same direction, repel if
opposite.

Force per unit length:

22 | P a g e Prepared by Dr. Augustine Onyemaechi

 𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2
=
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟

Example from your notes:

𝐹
 = 8.8 × 10−4 𝑁/𝑚, 𝑟 = 0.05 𝑚, 𝐼1 = 22 𝐴. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 .
𝐿
𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 (𝐹/𝐿) .2𝜋𝑟
= ⇒ 𝐼2 =
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟 𝜇0 𝐼1

(8.8×10−4 )×2𝜋×0.05 10−4 ×0.1 8.8×10−5

𝐼2 = = 8.8 × = = 10A
(4𝜋×10−7 )×22 4×10−7 ×22 8.8×10−6

PART 6: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Faraday's Law of Induction

An EMF (𝜺) is induced in a circuit whenever the magnetic flux through the
circuit changes. The magnitude:

𝑑𝛷𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
where:

 𝑁 = number of turns in coil

 𝛷𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = magnetic flux (Weber, Wb)
 1 𝑊𝑏 = 1 𝑇 ⋅ 𝑚2
Lenz's Law (the negative sign)

The induced EMF always acts to oppose the change in magnetic flux that
produced it.

23 | P a g e Prepared by Dr. Augustine Onyemaechi

 Flux linkage: 𝑁𝛷𝐵 .

Example from your notes

Coil: 𝑁 = 950, 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 = 0.06 𝑚, 𝛥𝑡 = 0.01 𝑠, 𝜀 = 0.065 𝑉.

𝜃0 = 0°, ⃗⃗ constant, loop rotates so angle
𝜃1 =45° . Assuming field 𝐵
changes.

𝛥𝛷 𝐵𝐴(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 0)
𝜀=𝑁 =𝑁
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
𝜀𝛥𝑡
𝐵=
𝑁𝐴(𝑐𝑜𝑠45°−𝑐𝑜𝑠0°)

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 = 𝜋(0.06)2
(0.065)(0.01)
𝐵=
950 ⋅ 𝜋 ⋅ (0.06)2 ⋅ (0.7071 − 1)

The negative denominator gives positive 𝐵. Approx: 𝐵 ≈ 8.56 × 10−5 𝑇.

Conducting vs. Non-Conducting Loops

 If the loop is conducting, induced EMF produces a current.

 If the loop is non-conducting (e.g., plastic), EMF is still induced, but 𝜀/𝑅 =
𝜀/∞ = 0 – no current flows.
Multiple choice question example: A plastic loop in an increasing
magnetic field (out of page). Answer: EMF is produced but no current
(because 𝑅 = ∞).

24 | P a g e Prepared by Dr. Augustine Onyemaechi

 PART 7: MUTUAL INDUCTANCE & SELF-INDUCTANCE

Mutual Inductance (𝑴)

When two coils are placed close, current 𝐼𝑝 in the primary coil produces
flux 𝛷𝑠 through the secondary coil:

𝑁𝑠 𝛷𝑠 = 𝑀𝐼𝑝 𝑝
Induced EMF in secondary:

𝑑𝐼𝑝
𝜀𝑠 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡

 𝑀 is measured in Henry (H). 1 𝐻 = 1 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑠/𝐴

Self-Inductance (𝑳)

A single coil carrying a changing current induces an EMF in itself (back EMF):

𝑑𝐼
𝜀 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑁𝛷
𝑁𝛷 = 𝐿𝐼 ⇒ 𝐿 =
𝐼

 Any coil is an inductor.

Energy Stored in an Inductor

1
𝑈 = 𝐿𝐼 2
2

Energy density in a magnetic field (solenoid, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼, 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙,

volume =𝐴𝑙):

25 | P a g e Prepared by Dr. Augustine Onyemaechi

 𝑈 𝐵2
𝑢𝐵 = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2𝜇0

1
Compare with electric field energy density: 𝑢𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 .
2

PART 8: TRANSFORMERS

A transformer uses mutual inductance to change AC voltage levels.

Transformer equation (ideal, no losses):

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝

 Step-up: 𝑁𝑠 > 𝑁𝑝 (increases voltage)

 Step-down: 𝑁𝑠 < 𝑁𝑝 (decreases voltage)
 Power conservation: 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 =𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 (ideal)
PART 9: AC CIRCUITS (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor)

For an AC source: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓.

Resistor (𝑹)

 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅, current in phase with voltage.

 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐼0 = 𝑉0 /𝑅.

26 | P a g e Prepared by Dr. Augustine Onyemaechi

 Inductor (𝑳)

 Voltage leads current by 90° (or current lags voltage by 90°90°).

𝑑𝑖
 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 . 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 𝐼0 cos(𝜔𝑡) , 𝑣𝐿 = −𝑤𝐿𝐼0 sin(𝑤𝑡) = 𝑤𝐿𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡 + 90°)
𝑑𝑡

 Inductive reactance: 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝛺). 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉0 = 𝐼0 𝑋𝐿 , 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐿 .

Capacitor (C)

 Current leads voltage by 90° (voltage lags current by 90°).

𝑑𝑣𝐶
 𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 . 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡), 𝑖 = −𝜔𝐶𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) = 𝜔𝐶𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 90°).
𝑑𝑡
1
 Capacitive reactance: 𝑋𝐶 = . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉0 = 𝐼0 𝑋𝐶 .
𝜔𝐶

Summary of Phase Relationships

Component Phase of voltage relative to current

Resistor In phase (0°)

Inductor Leads by 90°

Capacitor Lags by 90°

RLC Series Circuit

27 | P a g e Prepared by Dr. Augustine Onyemaechi

 Impedance (𝒁): The total opposition to current (like resistance but includes
phase).

2
1
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = √𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿 − )
𝜔𝐶

 Ohm's Law for AC: 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑍

Phase angle 𝝓 between total voltage and current:

𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜙 =
𝑅

Resonance

1
Resonance occurs when 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝜔𝐿 = :
𝜔𝐶

1
𝑤0 = (resonant angular frequency)
√𝐿𝐶

1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

 At resonance: 𝑍 = 𝑅 (minimum), current 𝐼 is maximum (for a given voltage).

Used in tuning radios.
RMS Values

𝑉0 𝐼0
For sinusoidal AC: 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = , 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ,
√2 √2

Example from your notes

Given 𝑓 = 15 𝑘𝐻𝑧 (assuming 15 × 103 𝐻𝑧, 𝐼0 = 65 𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 6 𝑉.

Find 𝐶 for a pure capacitor circuit (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐶 ).

28 | P a g e Prepared by Dr. Augustine Onyemaechi

 𝐼0 65 × 10−3
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = ≈ 0.04596 𝐴
√2 √2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 6
𝑋𝐶 = = ≈ 130.6 𝛺
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 0.04596
1 1 1
𝑋𝐶 = ⇒𝐶= = ≈ 8.13 × 10−8 𝐹 = 81.3 𝑛𝐹
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝑋𝐶 2𝜋(15 × 103 )(130.6)

Summary of Key Equations

Concept Equation
Magnetic force on charge 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗

Magnetic force on wire 𝐹⃗ = 𝐼𝐿⃗⃗ × 𝐵

⃗⃗

Torque on current loop 𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙

𝜇0 𝐼
Field from long straight wire 𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2
Force between two wires 𝐹/𝐿 =
2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝛷𝐵
Faraday's Law 𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼𝑝
Inductance (mutual) 𝜀𝑠 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 1
Inductance (self) 𝜀 = −𝐿 , 𝑈 = 𝐿𝐼 2
𝑑𝑡 2
Transformer 𝑉𝑠 /𝑉𝑝 = 𝑁𝑠 /𝑁𝑝

AC reactances 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿, 𝑋𝐶 = 1/(𝜔𝐶)

RLC impedance 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
Resonance 𝜔0 = 1/√𝐿𝐶

29 | P a g e Prepared by Dr. Augustine Onyemaechi