MODULE 2 – SOCIETY IN INDIA
1. Making of Indian Society
Meaning
Indian society is the result of historical, cultural, religious, economic, and political developments
over thousands of years.
India is one of the world’s oldest civilizations and is characterized by unity in diversity.
Factors in the Making of Indian Society
1. Geography
India’s mountains, rivers, plains, deserts, and coastal regions influenced settlement patterns and
culture.
Example:
● River valleys supported agriculture.
● Coastal regions developed trade and fishing communities.
2. Religion
India is the birthplace of:
● Hinduism
● Buddhism
● Jainism
● Sikhism
Religious diversity shaped customs and values.
3. Caste System
The caste system organized society into social groups and influenced occupation, marriage, and
social relations.
4. Foreign Influences
Various groups contributed to Indian culture:
● Aryans (around 1500 BCE)
● Greeks (326 BCE)
● Mughals (1526 CE)
● British (1757–1947)
Example:
English language, railways, and modern education were introduced during British rule.
Characteristics of Indian Society
1. Diversity
2. Unity in diversity
3. Religious pluralism
4. Caste-based stratification
5. Family-centered life
6. Cultural continuity
2. Joint Family and Kinship
Joint Family
Definition
According to Irawati Karve:
A joint family consists of people living together, sharing property, worship, and common meals.
Characteristics
1. Large family size
2. Common residence
3. Common property
4. Common kitchen
5. Cooperation
6. Authority of elders
Example
Grandparents, parents, uncles, aunts, and children living together under one roof.
Advantages
● Economic security
● Emotional support
● Care of children and elderly
● Preservation of traditions
Disadvantages
● Lack of privacy
● Family conflicts
● Dependence on elders
Kinship
Meaning
Kinship refers to social relationships based on blood, marriage, or adoption.
Types
Consanguineal Kinship
Relations by blood.
Examples:
● Mother
● Father
● Brother
● Sister
Affinal Kinship
Relations through marriage.
Examples:
● Husband
● Wife
● Mother-in-law
● Brother-in-law
Importance
● Provides identity
● Regulates marriage
● Maintains social support
3. Caste System
Definition
According to G. S. Ghurye (1893–1983):
Caste is a hereditary social group characterized by social hierarchy and restrictions.
Origin
The caste system is linked to the Varna system mentioned in the ancient Hindu text Rig Veda.
Four Varnas
1. Brahmins – Priests
2. Kshatriyas – Warriors
3. Vaishyas – Traders
4. Shudras – Service providers
Characteristics
1. Birth-based membership
2. Endogamy (marriage within caste)
3. Occupational specialization
4. Social hierarchy
5. Restrictions on social interaction
Merits
● Occupational stability
● Social organization
Demerits
● Untouchability
● Discrimination
● Social inequality
Changes in Modern India
● Education
● Urbanization
● Constitutional safeguards
● Reservation policies
have weakened traditional caste barriers.
4. Marriage
Definition
According to Kingsley Davis:
Marriage is a socially approved relationship between a man and a woman involving rights and
obligations.
Functions of Marriage
1. Regulation of sexual relations
2. Reproduction
3. Socialization of children
4. Emotional support
5. Family formation
Types of Marriage
Monogamy
One husband and one wife.
Example:
Most common form in modern India.
Polygamy
One person has multiple spouses.
Polygyny
One man, several wives.
Polyandry
One woman, several husbands.
Endogamy
Marriage within the same group.
Example:
Marriage within caste.
Exogamy
Marriage outside one’s group.
Example:
Marriage outside one’s clan or gotra.
5. Sanskritization
Concept
Introduced by M. N. Srinivas in 1952.
Definition
Sanskritization is the process by which lower castes adopt the customs, rituals, and lifestyle of
higher castes to improve their social status.
Examples
● Vegetarianism
● Temple worship
● Wearing sacred symbols
● Performing upper-caste rituals
Importance
● Social mobility
● Cultural change
● Status improvement
6. Westernization
Concept
Also developed by M. N. Srinivas.
Meaning
Westernization refers to changes brought by contact with Western culture, particularly during
British rule.
Examples
Education
Modern schools and universities.
Technology
Railways, telegraphs, internet.
Political Ideas
Democracy and human rights.
Dress
Western clothing styles.
Positive Effects
● Scientific outlook
● Women’s education
● Modern institutions
Negative Effects
● Decline of some traditional practices
● Cultural imitation
7. Industrialization
Meaning
Industrialization is the development of industries and factories on a large scale.
The Industrial Revolution began in United Kingdom around 1760.
Effects on Indian Society
Economic Changes
Growth of industries and employment.
Urbanization
Migration from villages to cities.
Family Changes
Rise of nuclear families.
Social Mobility
More occupational opportunities.
Example
Growth of textile industries in cities like Mumbai and Ahmedabad.
8. Social Change
Definition
According to Kingsley Davis:
Social change refers to changes in social structure and social relationships over time.
Factors of Social Change
1. Education
2. Technology
3. Urbanization
4. Industrialization
5. Globalization
6. Social movements
Examples
● Women’s education
● Digital technology
● Inter-caste marriages
● Increased gender equality
Characteristics
1. Universal
2. Continuous
3. Dynamic
4. Uneven
9. Social Movements
Meaning
According to Herbert Blumer:
A social movement is a collective effort to bring about social change.
A. Peasant Movements
Meaning
Movements by farmers against exploitation and injustice.
Important Movements
Indigo Revolt (1859–1860)
Farmers in West Bengal opposed forced indigo cultivation.
Champaran Movement (1917)
Led by Mahatma Gandhi in Bihar.
Farmers protested against oppressive plantation practices.
B. Dalit Movements
Meaning
Movements against caste discrimination and untouchability.
Major Leader
B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956)
Important Movements
Mahad Satyagraha (1927)
Demanded equal access to public water sources.
Temple Entry Movements
Demanded equal religious rights.
Contributions
● Equality
● Social justice
● Constitutional safeguards
C. Women’s Movements
Meaning
Movements promoting women’s rights and gender equality.
Important Reformers
Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Opposed Sati.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Promoted widow remarriage.
Issues
● Education
● Equal rights
● Employment
● Violence against women
D. Environmental Movements
Meaning
Movements to protect natural resources.
Chipko Movement (1973)
Started in Uttarakhand.
Villagers hugged trees to prevent deforestation.
Associated with Sunderlal Bahuguna.
Narmada Bachao Andolan (1985)
Led by Medha Patkar.
Focused on displacement caused by dams.
10. Goan Society and Culture
Goa reflects a blend of Indian and Portuguese influences.
Festivals
Hindu Festivals
● Diwali
● Ganesh Chaturthi
● Shigmo
Christian Festivals
● Christmas
● Easter
● Feast of St. Francis Xavier
Example
Shigmo is a spring festival celebrated with folk dances and colorful processions.
Goan Cuisine
Famous Dishes
Goan Fish Curry
Prawn Balchão
Vindaloo
Sorpotel
Bebinca
Folk Culture
Folk Dances
● Fugdi
● Dhalo
● Dekhni
● Corridinho
Folk Music
Traditional Konkani songs performed during festivals and celebrations.
Art and Theatre
Tiatr
A popular Konkani theatre form developed in the late 19th century.
Created by Lucasinho Ribeiro in 1892.
Characteristics:
● Music
● Comedy
● Social themes
● Live performances
Other Art Forms
● Mando music
● Traditional folk songs
● Handicrafts
● Religious art
Important Thinkers and Years for Exams
Thinker Contribution Year
M. N. Srinivas Sanskritization 1952
Irawati Karve Joint Family Studies 1953
G. S. Ghurye Caste Studies 1932
Kingsley Davis Marriage & Social Change 1949
B. R. Ambedkar Mahad Satyagraha 1927
M. K. Gandhi Champaran Movement 1917
Sunderlal Bahuguna Chipko Movement 1973
Medha Patkar Narmada Bachao Andolan 1985