Chapter

8 Nuclei
"Chhoti si nucleus ke andar chhupi hai badi si energy — jisse
duniya chalti hai aur future banta hai!" ️ ⚛✨
🎯 CHAPTER RELEVANCE OVERVIEW

📌 Detail

⭐ W hy This ● Core chapter of Modern Physics, a high-scoring zone in JEE.

Chapter
● Covers nuclear structure, radioactivity, mass defect, binding energy — all
Matters for
JEE essential for numerical accuracy.
● Builds foundation for nuclear reactions, radioactive dating, reactors, and
stability concepts.
● Relies on direct formulas, making it quick-to-solve and predictable in
the exam.

📊 J EE Weightage ● Typically 1 question every year in JEE Main.

(Last 3–5 Years) ● Sometimes 2+ conceptual/numerical questions in JEE Advanced.
● Modern Physics (including Nuclei) contributes 8–12 marks total—very
scoring.

❓ Common JEE ● Mass defect & binding energy per nucleon using E=Δm c2.
Question Types
● Stability prediction from binding energy curves.
● Radioactive decay calculations using N=N0e−lt.
● Half-life, mean life, decay constant relations.
● Activity calculations: A=lN.
● Q-value of nuclear reactions (fusion, fission, alpha/beta decay).
● Energy released or absorbed in nuclear transformations.

🔗 Future Topic ● Modern Physics → semiconductors, X-rays, particle accelerators.

Connections
● Quantum Mechanics → energy quantization and particle behaviour.
● Radiation & Medical Physics → PET scans, radiotherapy, nuclear imaging.
● Astrophysics → nuclear fusion in stars & stellar evolution.

1
Nuclei
 Atoms ke andar chhupa nuclear power aaj tumhare JEE score ko bhi supercharge karega! Bas
mass defect ko defect mat samajhna — wohi tumhara energy booster hai!" ️ ⚛🔥😆
"Yahan mass thoda sa ghatta hai… aur energy dhamaal se badh jaati hai! Nuclear physics:
small particles, BIG consequences. Get ready!"⚡😂
"Welcome to the tiniest drama club in Physics — where a little mass disappears and a LOT of
energy explodes! From binding energy to radioactive decay, this chapter proves that even atoms
⚛💥😄
have trust issues… and the math never lies!" ️

CONCEPT MAP/FLOW OF TOPICS

Structure of Nucleus Nuclear Mass and Binding Energy Radioactivity

Radioactive equilibrium Nuclear reaction

CORE CONCEPTS
✅ 1. Structure of Nucleus
Nucleus = protons + neutrons (called nucleons).
Atomic number (Z) → no. of protons.
Mass number (A) → total nucleons = p + n.
Neutron number (N) → A – Z.
Isotopes: same Z, different A.
Isobars: same A, different Z.
Isotones: same N, different Z.
Nucleus ka radius ≈ R = R0A1/3, where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15m

NOTE: Nuclei of almost all atoms have almost same density as nuclear density in independent
of the mass number (A) and atomic number (Z).

✅ 2. Nuclear Mass and Binding Energy

● Mass defect -
Every nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons (nucleons). Jab ye nucleons combine hote hain
to thoda mass loss hota hai → this is called mass defect (Dm).
Dm = Mass of nucleons – mass of nucleus
=A–m
= [Zmp + Nmn] – M
= [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – M
Packing fraction (f) = mass defect per necleon
Dm= [ Zmp + (A – Z) mn] –M

2
Physics (JEE-12) P
W
● Binding energy -
Energy required to break a nucleus completely into its nucleons or Energy released when nucleons
combine to form a nucleus Ye mass loss (mass defect) energy me convert ho jaata hai according to
Einstein's equation:
E = Dmc2
DE = B.E.
= (Mass of separated nucleons – Mass of nucleus) c2
= Dmc2
Here Dm: mass defect and 1 amu = 931.49 MeV of energy
● Binding energy per nucleon -
Binding energy per nucleon

∆E ∆mc2
=
A A

It is the measure of stability of nucleus.

Greater the binding energy per nucleon greater will be nucleus stability.
● Graph of B.E. v/s Mass Number (A)

10 75
56
Fe 33 An
Binding energy per nucleon (MeV/nucleon)

31
15
P 26 153
63 Eu
16 209
O 39 83 Bi
8 4 8 90
He 19 N 40 Zr 120
50 Sn
2 19
9F 238
14 92 U
6
12 N
C 7
6 6
3
Li

4
3
1
H
2
2
1
H
0
50 100 150 200 250
Nucleon number (A)

Inference:
→ Starts low for very light nuclei (like H, He).
→ Increases sharply up to Iron (A ≈ 56) indicating it as most stable.
→ Decreases slowly for heavy nuclei (U, Th, etc).
→ Fusion (light → heavier) increases B.E. ⇒ releases energy.
→ Fission (heavy → lighter) also increases B.E. ⇒ releases energy.
● Q - values
Q value batata hai kitni energy release ya absorb hoti hai in nuclear reaction.
Q = (Mreactant – Mproduct)c2
3
Nuclei
 NOTE: If Q > 0 → Reaction releases energy (Exothermic)
If Q < 0 → Reaction absorbs energy (Endothermic)
In terms of BE if BE/A is given
Q = BEproduct – BEreactant

● Nuclear stability

A nucleus is stable if the ratio of neutrons (N) to protons (P) is suitable to balance strong nuclear
force and electrostatic repulsion.

Number of
neutrons (N) N
N N — = 1.6 N
>  Z —=1
Z  Z Stable
Z
(shows b– decay)
Stability curve
N N
< 
Z  Z Stable
(shows b+ decay)

Number of protons (Z)

N
● Nuclear stability mainly depends on neutron-to-proton ratio  
Z
N
● For light nuclei (Z < 20) → stable when ≈ 1.
Z
N
● For heavy nuclei → stable when ≈ 1⋅5.
Z
N
● If < required ratio → nucleus is proton-rich → b+ (positron) emission.
Z

N
● If > required ratio → nucleus is neutron-rich → b– (electron) emission.
Z
● Very heavy nuclei (z > 83) are unstable → undergo a-decay.

💡 Trick:
"Light nuclei–N ≈ P stable, Heavy nuclei – N thoda zyada stable!"

4
Physics (JEE-12) P
W
✅ 3. Radioactivity
Spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus.
Types:
1. a-decay: He nucleus emission → A ↓ 4, Z ↓ 2

Z
α − decay
( )(
XA →Z −2 Y A − 4 +2 He4 + γ Energy , α − particle )

2. b-decay: electron/positron emission → Z changes by ± 1

β− − decay
Z
XA →Z + 1 Y A + −1 e0 + Q
β+ − decay
Z
XA →Z − 1 Y A + +1 e0 + Q

3. g-decay: emission of energy only, no change in A or Z.

● Fundamental laws of radioactivity -
At any instant the rate of decay of radioactive atoms is proportional to the number of atoms pres-
ent at that instant.

dN
Where, − λN
=
dt
l – decay constant
● Rutherford and Soddy's exponential equation of radioactivity.
N = N0e–lt

N0 = initial number of nuclei

N = remaining after time t

l = decay constant

NOTE:  f t = ∞ then N = 0. Therefore, for a complete decay of a radioactive nuclei, it takes

I
infinite time.
N
Fraction of active nuclei left = , (probability of survival)
N0

N N0 − N
Fraction of decayed nuclei = 1 − = , (Probability of decay)
N0 N0

● Half life

Half-life T1/ 2 is the time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay.

5
Nuclei
 T1/ 2 n2 0 ⋅ 693
= =
λ λ

Graph Between Number of Active Nuclei Left and Time of Decay:

N0

N0/2

N0/4

t
T1/2 2T1/2

● Average life or mean life (t)

Sum of lives of all nuclei' s
=τ Tavg
=
Tota l number of nuclei present
∞
−λt
∫ λN0e
1
dt ⋅ t
0
=
N0 λ
● Activity
Activity is defined as rate of decay at given instant.

A
A

N t
dN
1=
− Nλ
=
dt
∴A∝N
Since original activity A0 = lN0,
A N 1
∴ = = e−λt =
A0 N0 t/ T
(2) 1/ 2

Units of Activity:

(i) 1 disintegration / sec = 1 becquerel (Bq)

(ii) 1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 dps

6
Physics (JEE-12) P
W
(iii) 1 Rutherford - 106 dps

(iv) 1 millicurie = 37 Rutherford

✅ 4. Radioactive Equilibrium
Jab parent aur daughter nuclei dono radioactive ho aur kuch time baad unka decay rate equal ho
jaaye, to us condition ko radioactive equilibrium kehte hain.
● Transient Equilibrium (Temporary)

● Occurs when T1/ 2 (parent) ≈ few times T1/ 2 (daughter).

● Example: 99
Mo → 99m
Tc
● Daughter activity temporarily becomes nearly constant with parent.
● Secular Equilibrium (Permanent)

● Occurs when T1/ 2 (parent) >> T1/ 2 (daughter).

● Example: 238
U→ Th
234

● Daughter decays fast, so its activity becomes alomost equal to parent's and stays constant
for long time.
● Suppose A → B → C ........ (i.e., radioactive nucleus A decays to B and B decays to C)
NAlA = NBlB

✅ 5. Nuclear reaction

Feature Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

Process Heavy nucleus (like U-235, Pu-239) splits Light nuclei (like H-2, H-3) combine to
into smaller nuclei form heavier nucleus

Energy Released High energy per reaction, less than Extremely high energy per reaction
fusion

Mass-Energy Relation Mass defect → energy (E = Dm c2) Mass defect → energy (E = Dm c2)

Examples U-235 → Ba + kr + 3n D + T → He + n

Conditions Can occur at normal nuclear reactor Requires very high temperature &
conditions pressure (stars, fusion reactors)

Waste Produces radioactive waste Minimal radioactive waste

Applications Nuclear power plants, atomic bombs Sun & stars energy, future fusion reactors
(ITER)

Control Can be controlled in reactors Very difficult to control, mostly

experimental

7
Nuclei
Trick to Remember:
● Fission = "Break kar ke energy nikalo"
● Fusion = "Milao aur energy banao" ⚛️
● Chain reaction
Jab ek nuclear fission reaction se nikle neutrons aur nuclei ko fission karte hain, aur ye process
lagataar chalta rehta hai, to ise chain reaction kehte hain.
Types of Chain Reaction:
1. Controlled Chain Reaction:
● Speed of reaction is controlled using neutron absorbers (like cadmium rods).
● Used in nuclear reactors for power generation.
2. Uncontrolled Chain Reaction:
● Reaction grows very fast (exponential).
● Used in atomic bombs (huge energy release instantly).
Rate of Pr oduction of neutrons
3. Reproduction Factor (K) = K =
Rate of loss of neutrons

Case (i): K < 1; Chain reaction is not maintained. (sub-critical state)

Case (i): K
 = 1: Chain reaction is not maintained at steady rate. (critical state). In the state elec-
tricity is produced in the reactors at steady rate.
Case (iii): K
 > 1: Chain reaction becomes self sustained and lead to atomic explosion(super critical
state).

PRACTICE ZONES
🟢 Level 1: Basics
1. Thorium 238
Th produces a daughter nucleus that is radioactive. The daughter, in turn,
90
812
produces its own radioactive daughter and so on. This process continues until bismuth 83
Bi

is reached. What are the total number Na of a-particles and the total number Nb of b-particles
that are generated in this series of radioactive decays?
2. Calculate the Q value in the following decays:

(a) 19
O →19 F + e− + V (b) 25
Al → 25
Mg + e+ + v

The atomic masses needed are as follows:

19
O F
19 25
Al 23
Mg

1.9003576 u 18.998403 u 24.990432 u 24.985839 u

3. (a) Find an approximate expression for the mass of a nucleus of mass number A.
(b) Find an expression for the volume of this nueleus in terms of the mass number.

(c) Find a numerical value for its density.

8
Physics (JEE-12) P
W
🟡 Level 2: Conceptual
1. A radioactive substance has a half life of t0. Two particular nuclei, let's name them as A and
B, have not decayed over a particular observation period of 6t0.
(a) What is the probability that A will decay over a further period of 3t0?
(b) What is the probability that both A and B will survive over a further period of 3t0?
2. Example 16: A radioactive nucleus can decay by two different processes. The half-life for the
first process is t1 and that for the second process is t2. Show that the effective half-life t of
1 1 1
the nucleus is given by = + .
t t1 t2
3. Consider two deuterons moving towards each other with equal speeds in a deuteron gas.
What should be their kinetic energies (when they are widely separated) so that the closest
separation between them becomes 2 fm? Assume that the nuclear force is not effective for
separations greater than 2 fm. At what temperature will the deuterons have this kinetic
energy on an average?
🔴 Level 3: Tricky
1. (a) D
 etermine the number of carbon 14
6
C atoms present for every gram of carbon 12
6
C in a
living organism. (b) Find
(i) The decay constant and (ii) The activity of this sample.

2. Nuclei of radioactive element A are being produced at a constant rate a. The element has a
decay constant l. At time t = 0, there are N0 nuclei of the element.
(a) Calculate the number N of nuclei of A at time t.
(b) If a = 2N0l, calculate the number of nuclei of A after one half-life time of A and also the
limiting value of N at t → ∞.
3. The thorium decay series begins with 232Th alpha-decaying into 224Ra with a half life of 1.9
yr. 224Rn alpha-decays into 220Rn with a half life of 3.7 days, which in turn decays into 216Po
with a half life of 55 s. If the nuclides are in radioactive equilibrium in a mineral sample that

🔖🔷
contains 1.0 g of 220Rn, what are the masses of 224Ra and 228Th in the sample?

‍ CONCEPTUAL & FORMULA RECALL CHECKLIST

Concepts to Revise Quickly:
● Atomic number (Z), Mass number (A), Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones
●  Nuclear composition: proton, neutron, nucleon count
1
● Nuclear size and radius formula R = R0A3

● Nuclear density (independent of A)

● Mass defect and Binding energy (B.E = Dm c2)

● Curve of binding energy – stability concept

N 
● Nuclear stability  ratio, magic numbers 
Z 
● Radioactive decay law N = N0e -l t

9
Nuclei
● Relation between λ,T1/ 2, and mean life (t)

● Activity A=λN, unit - Becquerel

● Successive disintegration and radioactive series

● Q-value of nuclear reactions (energy released/absorbed)

● Radioactive equilibrium (secular & transient)
● Nuclear fission & fusion – energy release mechanism

● Einstein's mass-energy relation E = mc2

● Binding energy per nucleon vs A graph

🔷 Quick Formula Revision:

1/3
● R = R0A

mass
● =ρ = cons tan t
volume

● N = N0e–lt

0.693
● T1/ 2 =
λ

● A = A0e–lt

● Q = (mi – mf)c2

● B.E. = Dmc2

🔷 Common Mistakes to Avoid:

● Forgetting to convert amu → MeV (1 amu = 931 MeV)

● Mixing up half-life and mean life

● Confusing fission with fusion energy trends

Ignoring units in mass defect calculations

🧘‍♀
●

‍ REFLECTION SPACE

"Radioactive confusion kam karo... aur conceptual stability badhao!" ⚛️

😄
1. ❓ Where Did I Lose Stability?
Which topics still feel like an unstable nucleus (ready to decay anytime)?
● Mass defect?
● Binding energy curve?
● Radioactive decay math?

✍️______________________________________________________________
10
Physics (JEE-12) P
W
2. 🔁 Half-Life Review Zone
One concept I must revise again (before it decays from my memory):

✍️______________________________________________________________
3. 💬 Teach to Stay Stable
One idea from this chapter I can confidently explain to a friend:

✍️______________________________________________________________
"If you can explain decay constant without decaying yourself – you're ready for JEE!" 😂
🌡️
4. Concept Temperature Check
How stable (confident) do you feel?
Mark your confidence (☃ = Cold, 🌤 = Okay, 🔥 = Confident)
Concept Feeling

Mass Defect & BE/N: ☐ ☃ /☐ 🌤 /☐ 🔥

Radioactive Decay Law: ☐ ☃ /☐ 🌤 /☐ 🔥
Half-Life & Mean Life: ☐ ☃ /☐ 🌤 /☐ 🔥
Q-Value Calculations: ☐ ☃ /☐ 🌤 /☐ 🔥
Pressure–Kinetic Energy Relation: ☐ ☃ /☐ 🌤 /☐ 🔥
🔠 5. A–Z Nuclear Quick Challenge
Write one keyword for each letter (8–12 letters enough):
A = __________, B = _________, C = __________, F = __________,
N = __________, U = __________, R = __________, T = __________

6. 🎤 JEE Hot Seat Confession (Nuclear Edition)

🎤 Which formula can you write even during radioactive meltdown mode?
✍ ________________________________________________________________

🎤 Which topic feels like it has a very small half-life in your memory? 😅
✍ ________________________________________________________________

🎤 One trick that always helps me solve nuclear MCQs fast:

✍ ________________________________________________________________

📚 FOR CURIOUS MINDS

fi!" ️⚛🚀
"Welcome to the tiny world where mass vanishes, energy explodes, and Physics becomes pure sci-

11
Nuclei
🔗 Real-World & Engineering Connections
● Nuclear Reactors: Controlled fission powers entire cities — all based on binding energy and
neutron moderation.
● Particle Accelerators: Cyclotrons and synchrotrons use nuclear reactions to study matter at
subatomic levels.
● Medical Imaging: PET scans and radiotherapy rely on radioactive decay and gamma emissions.
● Space & Astrophysics: Stars shine because of nuclear fusion; binding energy curves explain
stellar evolution.

💡 Cool Trivia for JEE Nerds

● A 1% mass loss can release energy greater than thousands of tons of TNT.
● Carbon dating works because 14C decays at a predictable rate — Physics literally solves history
mysteries!
● The most stable nucleus? Iron-56 (Fe-56) — nature’s favourite value of "perfect balance".
● Nuclear reactors use delayed neutrons for control; without them, reactors would explode
instantly.

🧠 Think Like a Physicist (JEE Edition)

● Why does binding energy per nucleon decide if a reaction is fission or fusion?
● How can "losing mass" create megawatt power plants?
● Why do unstable nuclei prefer alpha decay, not proton decay?
● What does radioactive decay teach us about probability and exponential behaviour?
● Can you design a fuel rod that stays active for longer using decay laws?
🎯 JEE Insight
Most JEE questions in this chapter boil down to:
● Interpreting the binding energy curve,
● Applying radioactive decay formulas,
● Evaluating Q-values,
● And using mass-energy equivalence with precision. Simple formulas, high scoring potential.

Final Thought

"Atoms ke andar chhupa nuclear drama hi Physics ko thrilling banata hai! Mass
defect ho ya binding energy — jitna stable nucleus, utna stable your JEE score.
Bas yaad rakho: Concepts radioactive na ho jaayein… warna exam ke time sab
⚡😂
half-life ho jayega!"

"Nuclear physics simple hai: thoda sa mass kum karo, energy boom! Exactly like
JEE — thoda sa effort extra, marks boom!"

12
Physics (JEE-12) P
W
 SUMMARY
Nuclei explores the structure, stability, and energy dynamics of atomic cores—one of the
most scoring segments in Modern Physics. You learn the concepts of mass defect, binding
energy, and nuclear forces, which explain why nuclear reactions release enormous energy.
JEE frequently asks direct numerical questions on binding energy per nucleon, radioactive
decay laws, half-life, mean life, and activity calculations. The chapter also covers Q-values
of fission/fusion and energy changes during alpha/beta decay. With straightforward
formulas and minimal theory traps, this chapter offers high accuracy potential, and it
directly supports topics like semiconductor electronics, atomic physics, radiation, and
particle physics. Mastering Nuclei gives you a strong grip on energy transformations—a
must for both JEE Main and Advanced success.

13
Nuclei