PYTHON

Complete Reference Guide

Har code ka example + live output — ekdam seedha samjho!

Variables • Strings • Lists • Dicts • Loops • Functions • OOP • Modules

1. VARIABLES & DATA TYPES

Cheez ko naam do, store karo

# String - text ke liye (quotes mein)

naam = 'Rahul'
city = "Mumbai"

# Integer - pure number

umar = 22
score = -5

# Float - decimal number

height = 5.9
price = 99.99

# Boolean - True ya False sirf

student = True
married = False

# None - koi value nahi (empty box)

result = None

# Type check karo

print(type(naam)) # <class 'str'>
print(type(umar)) # <class 'int'>
print(type(height)) # <class 'float'>
print(type(student)) # <class 'bool'>

# Multiple assignment ek line mein

a, b, c = 1, 2, 3
x = y = z = 0 # sab zero
# OUTPUT:

<class 'str'>
<class 'int'>
<class 'float'>
<class 'bool'>

Rule: String mein quotes. Number mein koi quotes nahi. Boolean mein capital T/F. Variable naam mein space nahi -
underscore use karo.

2. TYPE CONVERSION
Ek type se doosre mein badlo

# String -> Integer

age_text = '25'
age_num = int(age_text)
print(age_num + 5) # 30

# String -> Float

price_text = '99.5'
price_num = float(price_text)
print(price_num * 2) # 199.0

# Number -> String

num = 42
text = str(num)
print('Result: ' + text) # Result: 42

# Input() se hamesha String aati hai - convert karo!

umar = int(input('Umar batao: '))
print('Agle saal:', umar + 1)

# bool() - kya value truthy hai?

print(bool(0)) # False
print(bool(1)) # True
print(bool('')) # False (empty string)
print(bool('Hi')) # True
# OUTPUT:

30
199.0
Result: 42
Umar batao: 22
Agle saal: 23
False | True | False | True
 3. STRINGS - Text ke saath khelna
s = 'Hello Duniya'

# Length
print(len(s)) # 12

# Uppercase / Lowercase
print([Link]()) # HELLO DUNIYA
print([Link]()) # hello duniya

# Replace
print([Link]('Duniya', 'World')) # Hello World

# Split - string ko list mein todo

words = [Link](' ')
print(words) # ['Hello', 'Duniya']

# Strip - spaces hatao start/end se

messy = ' Rahul '
print([Link]()) # 'Rahul'

# Find - word kahan hai?

print([Link]('Duniya')) # 6 (index)

# Startswith / Endswith
print([Link]('Hello')) # True
print([Link]('World')) # False

# f-String - variables seedha string mein daalo

naam = 'Rahul'
umar = 22
msg = f'Mera naam {naam} hai aur umar {umar} hai'
print(msg)

# Indexing - ek character lo
print(s[0]) # H (pehla)
print(s[-1]) # a (aakhri)

# Slicing - hissa lo
print(s[0:5]) # Hello
print(s[6:]) # Duniya
# OUTPUT:

12
HELLO DUNIYA
hello duniya
Hello World
['Hello', 'Duniya']
Rahul
6
True | False
Mera naam Rahul hai aur umar 22 hai
H | a
Hello | Duniya

4. LISTS - Ordered Collection

Kai cheezein ek saath store karo

fruits = ['Apple', 'Banana', 'Mango']

# Access - index se (0 se shuru)

print(fruits[0]) # Apple
print(fruits[-1]) # Mango (aakhri)

# Add karo
[Link]('Orange') # end mein add
[Link](1, 'Grapes') # specific position pe
print(fruits)

# Hatao
[Link]('Banana') # value se hatao
popped = [Link]() # aakhri hatao aur return karo
print(popped) # Orange

# Length
print(len(fruits)) # 3

# Sort karo
nums = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2]
[Link]()
print(nums) # [1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9]
[Link](reverse=True)
print(nums) # [9, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 1]

# Check karo
print('Apple' in fruits) # True
print([Link]('Apple')) # 1

# Loop lagao
for fruit in fruits:
print(fruit)

# List comprehension - ek line mein nayi list

squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 6)]
print(squares) # [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

evens = [x for x in range(1,11) if x % 2 == 0]

print(evens) # [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
# OUTPUT:

Apple
Mango
['Apple', 'Grapes', 'Banana', 'Mango', 'Orange']
Orange
3
[1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9]
[9, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 1]
True | 1
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
[2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
 5. DICTIONARY - Key-Value Store
Naam se value dhundho

student = {'naam': 'Rahul', 'umar': 22, 'city': 'Mumbai'}

# Access
print(student['naam']) # Rahul
print([Link]('umar')) # 22
print([Link]('email', 'N/A')) # N/A (default value)

# Add / Update
student['email'] = 'rahul@[Link]' # nayi key
student['umar'] = 23 # update

# Delete
del student['city']
removed = [Link]('email')
print(removed) # rahul@[Link]

# Keys, Values, Items

print([Link]()) # dict_keys(['naam', 'umar'])
print([Link]()) # dict_values(['Rahul', 23])

# Loop
for key, value in [Link]():
print(key, ':', value)

# Check karo
print('naam' in student) # True

# Nested dictionary
users = {
'u1': {'naam': 'Rahul', 'score': 90},
'u2': {'naam': 'Priya', 'score': 95},
}
print(users['u2']['naam']) # Priya
# OUTPUT:

Rahul
22
N/A
rahul@[Link]
dict_keys(['naam', 'umar'])
naam : Rahul | umar : 23
True
Priya
 6. CONDITIONS - if / elif / else
# Basic if/else
temp = 38
if temp > 37:
print('Bukhar hai!')
else:
print('Sab theek hai')

# elif - multiple checks

score = 78
if score >= 90: grade = 'A'
elif score >= 75: grade = 'B'
elif score >= 60: grade = 'C'
elif score >= 40: grade = 'D'
else: grade = 'F'
print('Grade:', grade)

# and / or / not
umar = 20
has_id = True
if umar >= 18 and has_id:
print('Entry milegi!')

if umar < 18 or not has_id:

print('Entry nahi')

# Ternary (shorthand if)

status = 'Pass' if score >= 40 else 'Fail'
print(status) # Pass

# Comparison chaining
marks = 75
if 60 <= marks < 80:
print('B range mein hai')
# OUTPUT:

Bukhar hai!
Grade: B
Entry milegi!
Pass
B range mein hai
 7. LOOPS - for & while
Baar baar kaam karo

# FOR loop - range se

for i in range(1, 6):
print(i, end=' ') # 1 2 3 4 5
print()

# FOR loop - list pe

names = ['Ali', 'Bob', 'Cara']
for name in names:
print('Hello', name)

# enumerate - index bhi chahiye saath mein

for i, name in enumerate(names, 1):
print(i, '.', name)

# WHILE loop
count = 0
while count < 3:
print('Count:', count)
count += 1

# break - loop turant band karo

for n in range(10):
if n == 5:
break
print(n, end=' ') # 0 1 2 3 4

# continue - is step skip karo

for n in range(6):
if n == 3:
continue
print(n, end=' ') # 0 1 2 4 5

# while + else
i = 0
while i < 3:
i += 1
else:
print('Loop khatam!') # Loop khatam!

# Nested loop
for i in range(1, 4):
for j in range(1, 4):
print(i*j, end='\t')
print()
# OUTPUT:

1 2 3 4 5
Hello Ali | Hello Bob | Hello Cara
1 . Ali | 2 . Bob | 3 . Cara
Count: 0 | Count: 1 | Count: 2
0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 4 5
Loop khatam!

8. FUNCTIONS - Kaam ko Package karo

# Basic function
def greet():
print('Namaste!')
greet() # Namaste!

# Parameters
def greet_user(naam):
print(f'Namaste, {naam}!')
greet_user('Rahul') # Namaste, Rahul!

# Default parameter
def power(base, exp=2): # exp ka default 2 hai
return base ** exp
print(power(3)) # 9 (3^2)
print(power(2, 10)) # 1024 (2^10)

# Multiple return values

def min_max(lst):
return min(lst), max(lst)
lo, hi = min_max([3,1,9,5])
print(lo, hi) # 1 9

# *args - kitne bhi arguments lo

def total(*nums):
return sum(nums)
print(total(1,2,3,4,5)) # 15

# **kwargs - keyword arguments

def profile(**info):
for k,v in [Link]():
print(k,'=',v)
profile(naam='Rahul', umar=22)

# Lambda - ek line function

square = lambda x: x**2
print(square(5)) # 25

double = lambda x: x*2

nums = [1,2,3,4]
print(list(map(double, nums))) # [2,4,6,8]
# OUTPUT:

Namaste!
Namaste, Rahul!
9 | 1024
1 9
15
naam = Rahul | umar = 22
25 | [2, 4, 6, 8]
 9. ERROR HANDLING - try / except
Galti se programme band na ho!

# Basic try/except
try:
result = 10 / 0
except ZeroDivisionError:
print('Zero se divide nahi kar sakte!')

# Multiple exceptions
try:
num = int(input('Number do: '))
print(100 / num)
except ValueError:
print('Number sahi nahi diya!')
except ZeroDivisionError:
print('Zero nahi chalega!')
finally:
print('Yeh hamesha chalega') # cleanup code

# Exception message capture karo

try:
lst = [1,2,3]
print(lst[10])
except IndexError as e:
print('Error:', e)

# Apna exception uthao

def check_age(age):
if age < 0:
raise ValueError('Umar negative nahi ho sakti!')
return age

try:
check_age(-5)
except ValueError as e:
print(e)
# OUTPUT:

Zero se divide nahi kar sakte!

Number do: 0
Zero nahi chalega!
Yeh hamesha chalega
Error: list index out of range
Umar negative nahi ho sakti!

10. USEFUL MODULES

Ready-made tools — import karo aur use karo

import math
print([Link](16)) # 4.0
print([Link]) # 3.14159...
print([Link](4.2)) # 5
print([Link](4.9)) # 4
print([Link](2, 8)) # 256.0

import random
print([Link](1,100)) # random 1-100
print([Link]()) # 0.0 to 1.0
lst = [1,2,3,4,5]
[Link](lst)
print(lst) # shuffled list
print([Link](lst)) # random element

import datetime
now = [Link]()
print([Link]) # 2025
print([Link]('%d/%m/%Y')) # 31/05/2025

import os
print([Link]()) # current folder
files = [Link]('.')
print(files) # folder ki files

import json
data = {'naam': 'Rahul', 'umar': 22}
json_str = [Link](data)
print(json_str) # '{"naam": "Rahul", "umar": 22}'
back = [Link](json_str)
print(back['naam']) # Rahul
# OUTPUT:

4.0 | 3.14159... | 5 | 4 | 256.0

74 (random) | 0.573... | [3,1,5,2,4]
2025 | 31/05/2025
{"naam": "Rahul", "umar": 22}
Rahul
 11. FILE HANDLING
Files padhna aur likhna

# File likhna (write)

with open('[Link]', 'w') as f:
[Link]('Pehli line\n')
[Link]('Doosri line\n')

# File padhna (read)

with open('[Link]', 'r') as f:
content = [Link]()
print(content)

# Line by line padhna

with open('[Link]', 'r') as f:
for line in f:
print([Link]())

# Append - end mein add karo (purana mat hatao)

with open('[Link]', 'a') as f:
[Link]('Teesri line\n')

# File exist karta hai?

import os
if [Link]('[Link]'):
print('File mil gayi!')
# OUTPUT:

Pehli line
Doosri line
File mil gayi!
 12. OOP - Classes & Objects
Real world cheezein code mein banana

class Student:
school = 'ABC School' # class variable (sab mein same)

def __init__(self, naam, umar): # constructor

[Link] = naam # instance variable
[Link] = umar
[Link] = []

def add_marks(self, mark):

[Link](mark)

def average(self):
if [Link]:
return sum([Link]) / len([Link])
return 0

def __str__(self): # print karne pe kya dikhao

return f'{[Link]} ({[Link]} saal)'

# Object banao
s1 = Student('Rahul', 20)
s1.add_marks(85)
s1.add_marks(90)
print(s1) # Rahul (20 saal)
print([Link]()) # 87.5

# Inheritance
class TopStudent(Student): # Student se inherit kiya
def __init__(self, naam, umar, scholarship):
super().__init__(naam, umar) # parent ka init
[Link] = scholarship

def info(self):
return f'{[Link]} - Scholarship: {[Link]}'

ts = TopStudent('Priya', 19, 'Full')

ts.add_marks(98)
print([Link]()) # Priya - Scholarship: Full
print([Link]()) # 98.0 (inherited method!)
# OUTPUT:

Rahul (20 saal)

87.5
Priya - Scholarship: Full
98.0
 PYTHON DICTIONARY
Har function/method ka matlab + live example

Yeh dictionary ek quick reference hai. Har entry mein: naam, kya karta hai, code example, aur output. Jab bhi koi
function yaad na aaye - yahan dekho!

print()

Screen pe kuch dikhao

print('Hello')

print(1, 2, 3)

print('A', end='')

print('B')

=> Hello | 1 2 3 | AB

input()

User se text lo (hamesha string return karta hai)

naam = input('Naam batao: ')

print('Hello', naam)

=> Naam batao: Rahul | Hello Rahul

len()

Kisi bhi sequence ki length nikalo

print(len('Hello'))

print(len([1,2,3,4]))

print(len({'a':1,'b':2}))

=> 5 | 4 | 2

range()

Number sequence banao

print(list(range(5)))

print(list(range(2,8)))

print(list(range(0,10,2)))

=> [0,1,2,3,4] | [2,3,4,5,6,7] | [0,2,4,6,8]

type()

Kisi bhi value ka data type check karo

print(type(42))

print(type('Hi'))

print(type(3.14))

print(type(True))

=> | | |

int() / float() / str()

Type conversion

print(int('25'))

print(float('3.14'))

print(str(100))

print(int(9.9))

=> 25 | 3.14 | '100' | 9 (decimal cut ho jaati)

abs()

Number ka absolute value (negative -> positive)

print(abs(-15))

print(abs(8))

=> 15 | 8

round()

Decimal round karo

print(round(3.7))

print(round(3.14159, 2))

=> 4 | 3.14

max() / min()

Sabse bada / chhota value nikalo

print(max(3,1,9,5))

print(min([10,3,7]))

print(max('apple','zebra'))

=> 9 | 3 | zebra

sum()

Numbers ka total nikalo

print(sum([1,2,3,4,5]))

print(sum(range(1,11)))
 => 15 | 55

sorted()

Sort ki gayi nayi list return karo (original safe rahe)

nums=[3,1,4,1,5]

print(sorted(nums))

print(sorted(nums,reverse=True))

=> [1,1,3,4,5] | [5,4,3,1,1]

enumerate()

Loop mein index bhi saath lo

for i,v in enumerate(['A','B','C'],1):

print(i,v)

=> 1 A | 2 B | 3 C

zip()

Do lists ko ek saath iterate karo

names=['Ali','Bob']

scores=[90,85]

for n,s in zip(names,scores):

print(n,s)

=> Ali 90 | Bob 85

map()

Har element pe function lagao

nums=[1,2,3,4]

doubled=list(map(lambda x:x*2, nums))

print(doubled)

=> [2,4,6,8]

filter()

Condition pe elements chhunaao

nums=range(1,11)

evens=list(filter(lambda x:x%2==0, nums))

print(evens)

=> [2,4,6,8,10]
.upper() / .lower()

String ko uppercase / lowercase banao

s='Hello World'

print([Link]())

print([Link]())

=> HELLO WORLD | hello world

.strip() / .lstrip() / .rstrip()

String ke start/end se spaces hatao

s=' Hello '

print([Link]())

print([Link]())

print([Link]())

=> Hello | Hello | Hello

.split()

String ko list mein todo

s='Ali,Bob,Cara'

print([Link](','))

print('a b c'.split())

=> ['Ali','Bob','Cara'] | ['a','b','c']

.join()

List ko string mein jodo

words=['Hello','World']

print(' '.join(words))

print('-'.join(words))

=> Hello World | Hello-World

.replace()

String mein kuch badlo

s='I love Python'

print([Link]('Python','Coding'))

=> I love Coding

.find()

Word kahan hai - index return karo (-1 agar nahi mila)
s='Hello World'

print([Link]('World'))

print([Link]('xyz'))

=> 6 | -1

.format()

String mein values daalo

msg='Naam: {}, Umar: {}'

print([Link]('Rahul', 22))

=> Naam: Rahul, Umar: 22

.append()

List ke end mein element add karo

lst=[1,2,3]

[Link](4)

print(lst)

=> [1,2,3,4]

.insert()

List mein specific position pe add karo

lst=[1,2,4]

[Link](2,3)

print(lst)

=> [1,2,3,4]

.remove()

List se value hatao (pehli occurrence)

lst=[1,2,3,2]

[Link](2)

print(lst)

=> [1,3,2]

.pop()

List se element hatao aur return karo

lst=[1,2,3]

last=[Link]()

print(last, lst)
first=[Link](0)

print(first,lst)

=> 3 [1,2] | 1 [2]

.count()

Kitni baar value hai?

lst=[1,2,2,3,2]

print([Link](2))

print('hello'.count('l'))

=> 3 | 2

.index()

Value pehli baar kahan hai - index return karo

lst=['a','b','c']

print([Link]('b'))

=> 1

.sort()

List ko in-place sort karo (original badal jaati hai)

lst=[3,1,4,1,5]

[Link]()

print(lst)

[Link](reverse=True)

print(lst)

=> [1,1,3,4,5] | [5,4,3,1,1]

.reverse()

List ko ulta karo

lst=[1,2,3,4,5]

[Link]()

print(lst)

=> [5,4,3,2,1]

[Link]()

Dictionary ki saari keys lo

d={'naam':'Rahul','umar':22}

print(list([Link]()))
 => ['naam','umar']

[Link]()

Dictionary ki saari values lo

d={'naam':'Rahul','umar':22}

print(list([Link]()))

=> ['Rahul', 22]

[Link]()

Key-value pairs lo - loop ke liye perfect

d={'a':1,'b':2}

for k,v in [Link]():

print(k,'->',v)

=> a -> 1 | b -> 2

[Link]()

Safe tarike se value lo (error nahi aata agar key nahi hai)

d={'naam':'Rahul'}

print([Link]('naam'))

print([Link]('email','N/A'))

=> Rahul | N/A

[Link]()

Ek dictionary ko doosre se update karo

d={'a':1}

[Link]({'b':2,'c':3})

print(d)

=> {'a':1,'b':2,'c':3}